OIIinHttamtg  aa  a  Mortal 
Jartor  in  Mahnn  Mpm 


A  THESIS  PRESENTED  TO  THE  FACULTY 
OF  THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL  OF  THE  UNI- 
VERSITY OF  PENNSYLVANIA  IN  PARTIAL 
FULFILMENT  OF  THE  REQUIREMENTS  FOR 
THE  DEGREE  OF  DOCTOR  OF  PHILOSOPHY 


BY 
ALLEN  KLEIN  FAUST 


BR 

1305 
.F28 
1909 


1909 


tihvavy  of  1:he  theological  ^tmimvy 

PRINCETON  •  NEW  JERSEY 


Crift  Of  Yale  Divinity  School 
Library 

BR  1305  .F28  1909 
Faust,  Allen  Klein.        i 
Christianity  as  a  social   ! 
factor  in  modern  Japan 


JUM   2    1948 


Christianity  as  a  Social  Facl 
in  Modern  Japan 


Allen  Klein  Faust 


A  THESIS 
Presented  to  the  Faculty  of  the  Graduate  School  of  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  in  Partial  Fulfilment 
OF   the    Requirements   for   the   Degree   of 
Doctor  of  Philosophy. 


Lancaster,  Pa. 

StEINMAN  &  FOLTZ, 

1909 


PREFACE 

The  two  main  sources  of  our  knowledge  concerning  the  influ- 
ence of  Christianity  in  Japan  have  been  the  missionary  address 
and  the  globe-trotter's  account.  In  a  certain  sense,  both  of 
these  informants  have  "axes  to  grind."  The  former  is  expected 
to  lay  special  emphasis  only  on  that  part  of  the  truth  which  will 
best  serve  to  loosen  the  purse-strings  of  his  hearers,  while  many 
of  the  latter  class  of  persons,  when  they  come  to  a  missionary 
country,  engage  themselves  in  seeking  some  new  reasons  why 
they  should  not  contribute  towards  foreign  missions. 

That  both  of  these  sources  of  information  are  unreliable  and 
insufficient,  is  proved  by  the  remarkable  amount  of  ignorance 
on  this  point  that  is  met  with  among  otherwise  intelligent  Ameri- 
can Christians.  But  I  feel  certain,  also,  that  the  missionary, 
because  of  his  first-hand  knowledge  and  his  sympathetic  relation 
with  the  Japanese  people,  is  a  trustworthy  authority  on  the 
subject  of  Christian  influence  provided  he  can  be  caught  when 
he  is  off  his  guard. 

Any  person  writing  about  the  life  of  peoples  other  than  that 
of  his  native  land,  has  one  immense  advantage.  It  is  that  he 
does  not  feel  obliged,  either  by  love  or  prejudice,  to  defend  the 
institutions  and  customs  which  he  is  reviewing.  But  the  corre- 
sponding disadvantage  which  meets  him  at  every  turn,  is  the 
fact  that  a  foreigner  cannot  fully  fathom  the  nature  and  feelings 
of  other  people  and  thus  truly  sympathize  with  them. 

The  question  becomes  doubly  difficult  when  the  institution 
to  be  studied  is  Christianity  in  Japan,  a  non-Christian  country. 
The  American  Christian  w^ho  attempts  to  review  his  own  religious 
institutions  under  foreign  conditions,  is  constantly  in  danger  of 
interpreting  facts  with  an  Americanized  vision ;  and  the  Japanese 


4  Christianity  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan 

critic  is  passing  judgment  on  something  totally  foreign  to  him 
though  in  his  own  country.  But  on  all  phases  of  the  subject,  as 
a  possible  corrective,  I  add  to  my  own  impressions  the  statements 
of  Japanese  who  are  prominent  in  their  respective  fields.  Dog- 
matic assertions  on  a  question  like  this  must  in  the  nature  of  the 
case  be  utterly  discountenanced. 

Another  difficulty  in  determining  how  much  Japan  has  been 
influenced  by  Christianity  comes  from  the  fact  that  in  the  West 
Christianity  has  become  an  organic  part  of  the  social  life,  and 
this  makes  it  impossible  to  separate  religious  influence  from  that 
of  mere  civilization.  Moreover,  the  influence  of  Christianity  in 
Japan  is  not  limited  to  those  people  that  have  been  baptized 
nor  to  those  of  them  that  may  be  considered  orthodox  Christians. 
Such  limitation  would  surely  make  out  a  worse  case  for  Christi- 
anity in  Japan  'than  the  facts  warrant. 

Only  as  we  remember  that  the  Gospel  is  a  principle  and  not  a 
fixed  dogma,  a  seed  and  not  a  fruit,  can  we  realize  the  universal 
applicability  of  the  spirit  of  Christianity  and  understand  that 
the  outward  expression  of  this  spirit  is  not  necessarily  identical 
in  all  countries  and  in  all  ages.  Christianity  does  not  only  allow 
of  development,  but  its  very  essence  is  that  of  progress  and 
growth.  Constant  change  in  its  interpretation  and  constant 
adjustment  to  new  conditions  are  necessary  to  its  continued  pre- 
eminence as  a  spiritual  power  in  human  society.  Each  social 
group  has  its  peculiar  environments  and  resultant  individuality. 
Hence  it  is  only  reasonable  to  expect  that  the  philosophy  and 
institutions  of  Japanese  Christianity  will  be  different  from  those 
of  the  Western  world,  though  both  are  inspired  by  the  same 
spirit  of  Christian  love. 

The  Christianity  of  the  past  also  has  varied  greatly  in  its 
practical  content.  Two  hundred  years  ago  the  whole  Christian 
Church  believed  in  slavery  and  vigorously  defended  it  on  Scrip- 
tural grounds,  and  almost  universally  practised  it.  Intolerance 
and  the  right  of  taking  life  for  heresy  were  considered  very  im- 
portant parts  of  Christianity.  In  the  time  of  Galileo  and  later, 
the  Church  thought  it  impossible  for  a  person  to  get  to  heaven 


Preface  5 

if  he  believed  that  the  earth  was  round  and  that  it  revolved 
around  the  sun.  From  facts  such  as  these,  it  becomes  very  evi- 
dent that  it  is  both  futile  and  false  to  endeavor  to  measure  the 
influence  of  Christianity  in  terms  of  theology.  It  must  be  meas- 
ured in  terms  of  human  life,  its  constant  aim  being  to  incorporate 
the  spirit  of  Jesus  vitally  and  effectively  in  individual  and  social 
life. 

It  is  from  this  point  of  view  that  the  following  chapters  are 
written.  They  are  neither  a  theological  treatise  nor  a  missionary 
essay,  but  an  effort  to  make  known  a  few  of  the  social  problems 
with  which  Japan  is  wrestling  at  present,  and  to  determine  what 
part  Christianity  is  taking  in  the  solution  of  these  problems. 

The  fact  that  I  have  done  Christian  work  in  Japan  for  a  num- 
ber of  years,  during  which  time  I  acquired  a  fair  ability  to  speak 
the  language  and  gained  some  reading  knowledge  of  Japanese 
literature,  has  led  one  of  my  professors  in  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania to  suggest  that  I  write  on  this  subject,  and  this  is  the 
reason  for  my  undertaking  to  make  a  sociological  study  of  Christi- 
anity in  Japan. 

A.  K.  F. 

Lansdale,  Pa., 
May  28,  1909. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I 
The  Antecedents  of  Christianity  in  Japan 
Tlie    Count r\'.     The    People.     Religions:  Shintoism,    Buddhism,    Con- 
fucianism.    Bushido.     Feudalism.     The  Restoration.     A  New  Japan.       9 

CHAPTER  II 

The  Second  Coming  of  Christianity.     Its  Influence  on  Government 
AND  Education  in  Japan 

Remnant  of  Jesuit  Christianity.  Opposition  to  Christianity.  Commer- 
cial Treaties.  Religious  Freedom.  Christians  in  the  Diet,  Legal 
Codes.  "Free  Cessation."  Christian  Schools.  Discrimination  Against 
Christian  Schools  Removed.  Criticism  of  Christian  Education  in  Japan. 
Female  Education  in  Japan.  Christian  Girls'  Schools  and  the  Depart- 
ment of  Education.     The  Fine  Arts 24 

CHAPTER  III 
Influence  of  Christianity  on  Literature,  Morals  and  Religions  of 

Japan 
Christian  Books  and  Papers.     The  Popular  Novel.     Language.     Morals. 
Position  of  Women.     Marriage  and  Divorce.     Concubinage.     Social 
Evil.     Suicide.     Imperial   Rescript.     School   Ethics.     Home   Ethics. 
Religions.     Buddliist  Reforms 42 

CHAPTER  IV 
Influence   of  Christianity   on   Philanthropic   and   Social  Work  in 

Japan 
Paternalism.  Extra-Ecclesiastic  Christianity.  Public  Charity.  Salva- 
tion Army.  Peace  Movement.  Temperance  Work.  Red  Cross  So- 
ciety. Orphanages.  Prisoners  and  Released  Prisoners.  Reforma- 
tory Work.  Lepers.  Medical  Missions.  Yomig  Men's  Christian 
Association 60 

CHAPTER  V 
The  Japanese  Christian  Church 
Its  Size.     Rate  of  Increase.    Independence.    The  Masses  Still  Unreached. 
A  Questionnaire.     Obstacles  to  Rapid  Growth,  External  and  Internal. 
Co-operation.     Tendencies    in    the    Japanese    Church.     The    Church 

Japonicized.     Conclusion 71 

BIBLIOGRAPHY   95 


CHAPTER  I 

ANTECEDENTS  OF  CHRISTIANITY  IN  JAPAN 

The  Country.      The  People.      Religions.     Shintoism.      Buddhism. 

Confucianism.     Bushido.     Feudalism.     The  Restoration. 

A  New  Japan. 

In  order  to  form  a  correct  idea  of  the  social  problems  which 
confront  Christianity  in  modern  Japan,  it  is  necessary  to  have 
at  least  a  bird's  eye  view  of  the  principal  facts  and  factors  that 
formed  the  basis  of  the  social  economy  of  days  gone  by.  It  is 
with  the  intention  of  supplying  the  material  needed  to  take  a 
fairly  intelligent  retrospective  glance  at  Japanese  society  that 
the  brief  historical  reviev/  in  Chapter  One  is  given. 

The  Country. — The  Empire  of  Japan  consists  of  four  thou- 
sand islands.  Including  Formosa  and  Saghalien,  the  total  area 
exceeds  170,000  square  miles,  being  almost  four  times  the  area 
of  Pennsylvania,  or  one-twenty-fourth  that  of  China.  These 
islands  are  of  volcanic  origin,  and  still  exhibit  many  signs  of 
subterranean  force — hot  springs,  earthquakes  and  volcanoes. 
Lofty  and  rugged  mountains  occupy  the  centre  of  most  of  the 
islands,  causing  the  rivers  of  Japan  to  be  short  and  rapid  and 
of  little  use  for  navigation.  In  some  parts  of  Japan  the  annual 
rainfall  is  one  hundred  inches.  This  often  converts  the  rivers 
into  torrents,  but  it  also  produces  the  luxuriant  vegetation 
which  is  so  characteristic  of  Japan,  i 

The  People. — That  the  Japanese,  like  all  other  peoples,  are 
a  mixed  race,  no  scientist  of  to-day  seems  to  doubt,  but  as  to 
the  component  elements  of  the  race  there  is  lack  of  agreement. 
Dr.  S.  L.  GuUck  maintains  that  the  Japanese  people  have  come 

1  C.  B.  Mitford,  Geography  of  Japan. 


10  Christianity  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan 

from  a  mixture  of  the  Mongol,  Malay,  Tartar  and  Ainu  races. 
Other  scholars  hold  that  Pigmy,  Aryan,  Mongolian  and  Ainu 
blood  is  mixed  together  in  the  veins  of  this  island  race.  From 
either  standpoint,  the  Mongolian  is  held  to  be  the  basic  stock. 
The  simple  fact  that  the  race  is  a  mixed  one  and  became  such  in 
comparatively  recent  times  is  of  more  sociological  value  than 
the  question  as  to  what  elements  enter  into  the  composition, 
for  it  has  been  discovered  that  in  biological  evolutions  species 
of  recent  and  mixed  origin  are  easily  modifiable,  i.  e.,  they  are 
very  "sensitive  to  environment."! 

Too  much  importance  can  hardly  be  placed  upon  this  scien- 
tific fact,  as  it  has  a  very  direct  bearing  on  the  characteristics  of 
the  Japanese  people.  A  mixed  and,  therefore,  modifiable  race, 
recently  amalgam.ated  on  volcanic  islands,  among  rugged  moun- 
tains and  swift-flowing  rivers,  where  hot  springs  and  volcanoes 
abound,  where  earthquakes  are  frequent,  and  wind  storms,  floods 
and  tidal  waves  are  common  occurrences,  and  where  nature  is 
very  generous  in  vegetation  and  in  sublime  scenery,  will  develop 
certain  definite  characteristics.  Japanese  scholars  have  men- 
tioned brilHancy,  valor,  courage,  sympathy,  "solidarity  of  re- 
sponsibility" and  poetic  ideas  as  forming  some  of  the  better  por- 
tion of  their  national  character;  while  pride,  prejudice,  impul- 
siveness and  vacillation  have  been  given  as  less  fortunate  ele- 
ments. 2  But  all  of  these  traits,  good  and  bad,  are  found  in  all 
other  peoples  as  v/ell.  The  place  of  emphasis  is  the  main  differ- 
ence. 

The  population  at  present  (1908)  is  about  fifty  millions.  The 
average  density  of  population  for  the  whole  empire  is  about 
two  hundred  and  sixty  persons  to  the  square  mile.  Hondo,  the 
main  island,  however,  has  over  four  hundred  persons  to  the 
square  mile.     Tokyo,  the  capital,  has  about  two  millions  of  in- 


1  Gulick,  Evolution  of  the  Japanese,  p.  81. 

Giddings,  Principles  0}  Sociology,  p.  814:  "On  one  point  there  is  no  dispute. 
Crossing  creates  physiological  plasticity  and  variability." 

2  K.  Kawakami,  The  Political  Ideas  of  Modern  Japan,  Chapter  III. 


Antecedents  of  Christianity  in  Japan  11 

habitants.  Not  more  than  one-eighth  of  the  total  surface  of  Japan 
is  under  cultivation,  and  yet  the  urban  population  is  increasing 
much  faster  than  that  of  the  rural  districts.  The  feudal  bound- 
aries of  former  times  still  largely  mark  the  distribution  of  the 
population  and  the  movement  of  the  working  classes.  It  is, 
therefore,  a  hopeful  sign  that  the  Japanese  are  fast  becoming  a 
manufacturing  nation. i 

Religions. — Shintoism,  Buddhism  and  Confucianism  are  so 
blended  in  Japan  that  the  common  people  generally  believe  in 
all  three  religions  without  clearly  distinguishing  one  from  the 
other.  Each  one  of  these  faiths  has  been  a  great  help  to  Japan's 
moral  life,  though  much  that  retards  progress  has  also  been  fos- 
tered by  them. 

Shinto. — The  two  ideographs  of  the  word,  Shinto,  mean, 
"The  Way  of  the  Gods."  This  rudimentary  religion  is  said  to  be 
indiginous  to  Japan.  In  the  earUest  times,  the  sun  probably  was 
its  highest  deity,  butcoupled  with  this  first  god  were  the  Yao- 
yorozu  (800,000  gods)  that  had  to  do  with  all  phases  of  nature- 
worship.  Heavenly  bodies,  lofty  mountains,  bold  cliffs,  aged 
trees  were  deified.  Phallicism,  in  its  usual  crude  form,  also  ex- 
isted quite  generally.  2 

To  this  nature-worship  was  added  ancestor-worship  and  Mikado 
worship.  Mr.  K.  Kawakami  and  other  Japanese  scholars  say 
that  when  the  invading  Aryan  element  had  conquered  the 
aborigines  and  had  established  themselves  as  rulers,  they  were 
looked  upon  as  gods  by  the  conquered  tribes.  This  was  w^elcomed 
and  encouraged  by  the  rulers,  and  very  soon  it  was  claimed  that 
the  Mikado  was  a  direct  descendant  of  the  Sun-goddess.  Here 
then  is  an  amalgamation  of  the  older  "Way  of  the  Gods"  and 
Mikadoism — nature-worship  and  emperor-worship.  It  is  the 
union  of  an  agricultural  cult  and  a  happy  political  device.  In 
the  opinion  of  Sir  Ernest  Satow,  Shinto  was  nothing  more  than 
an  engine  for  reducing  the  people  to  a  condition  of  mental  slavery. 


1  A.  B.  Mitford,  Geography  of  Japan. 

2  G.  W.  Aston.  Shinto,  The  Way  of  the  Gods. 


12  Christianity  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan 

It  is  a  polytheistic  religion,  but  has  only  few  idols,  no  sacred 
book,  no  moral  code,  no  dogmas,  and  has  but  a  very  feeble  idea 
of  spiritual  things.  "Follow  your  own  natural  impulses  and 
obey  the  laws  of  the  State"  is  the  only  injunction  that  is  laid  upon 
the  followers  of  Shinto. 

Moto-ori,  a  famous  writer  of  the  18th  century,  admits  that 
Shinto  has  no  moral  code,  and  asserts  that  morals  were  invented 
by  the  Chinese  because  among  them  such  props  were  necessary, 
but  that  in  Japan  there  was  no  need  for  any  system  of  morals, 
as  every  Japanese  acted  rightly  if  he  only  consulted  his  own 
heart.  1 

The  worst  that  has  ever  been  charged  against  Shinto  is  that 
lying  and  licentiousness  found  shelter  under  it,  and  that  all  its 
influence  made  directly  against  mental  freedom  and  the  rights 
of  the  people.  The  best  that  has  been  said  in  favor  of  this 
primitive  religion  is  that  its  "ideal  is  to  make  people  pure  and 
clean,  to  help  them  to  Hve  simply,  honestly  and  with  mutual 
good  will;  it  is  to  make  the  Japanese  love  their  country,  honor 
their  imperial  house  and  obey  their  emperor."^ 

In  1899  Shinto  was  officially  disestablished  as  a  religion.  Its 
legal  raison  d'etre  now  is  to  be  "merely  a  mechanism  for  keeping 
generations  in  touch  with  generations,  and  preserving  the  con- 
tinuity of  the  nation's  veneration  for  its  ancestors."  It  has  been 
suggested,  but  without  warrant,  that  this  legal  step  is  a  shrewd 
and  dangerous  trap  for  Christians,  by  attempting  to  deprve  them 
of  a  valid  reason  for  not  participating  in  [Shinto  ceremonies. 
Whatever  the  motive  of  the  disestabUshment,  the  fact  is  that 
many  of  the  people  continue  as  before  to  worship  nature,  their 
ancestors,  the  emperor  and  his  ancestors.  3 

1  Murray,  The  Story  of  Japan,  p.  84. 

Modem  Shinto  is  founded  on  two  old  books  called  the  Kojiki  (Record  of 
Ancient  Matters),  written  in  712,  and  the  Nihongi  (Chronicles  of  Japan), 
written  in  720. 

2  Griffis,  The  Religions  of  Japan,  p.  97. 

3  In  the  "Commentaries  on  the  Japanese  Constitution,"  by  Marquis  Ito 
now  Prince),  the  following  passage  is  found:   "The  Sacred  Throne  was  estab- 


Antecedents  of  Christianity  in  Japan  13 

Buddhism. — Buddhism  was  introduced  into  Japan  from  China 
through  Korea,  in  552  A.  D.  Originally  it  ignored  the  existence 
of  a  supreme  being  and  creator  of  worlds,  and  taught  spontaneous 
evolution  as  its  theory  of  cosmogony.  It,  however,  inherited 
gods  from  Brahminism,  but  these  are  held  secondary  to  hotoke, 
"saints  who  have  toiled  upward  through  successive  stages  of 
existence  to  the  calm  of  perfect  holiness,"  Nirvana.  Knowledge, 
not  faith,  is  the  highest  grace.  Self-perfection,  not  salvation 
through  another;  not  eternal  life,  but  practical  annihilation  is 
the  summum  honum  to  be  sought.  Life,  springing  as  it  does 
from  ignorance  and  passions,  is  of  all  evils  the  greatest. i 

The  atheistic  ideas  of  Buddhism  caused  some  trouble  at  first 
because  of  the  divinity  of  the  emperor  and  the  Yaoyorozu  (800,- 
000  gods).  But  in  the  ninth  century  this  difficulty  was  easily 
overcome  by  the  great  priest  Kobo  Daishi,  who  taught  that  the 
Shinto  gods  and  heroes  were  the  manifestations  and  incarnations 
of  Buddhist  saints.  Thus  the  divine  descent  of  the  emperor 
became  compatible  with  the  new  reUgion,  and  a  warm  welcome 
for  the  faith  w^as  found.  2 

The  fataUstic  doctrine  of  cause  and  efTect  (ingwa)  is  one  of  the 
best  known  of  its  teachings.  It  is  a  sort  of  metempsychosis. 
When  a  man  dies,  a  new  being  is  formed.  If  the  man's  fife  is 
credited  wdth  more  virtues  than  vices,  a  promotion  takes  place; 
if  the  opposite  is  the  case,  degradation  follows.  Every  evil  deed 
will  most  certainly  produce  its  fruit  of  calamity,  and  every  good 
deed  its  happiness.  There  is  no  real  responsibility  for  one's  acts, 
as  every  calamity  and  every  evil  deed  proceeds  from  something 


lished  at  the  time  when  the  heavens  and  the  earth  became  separated.  The 
emperor  is  heaven-descended,  divine  and  sacred;  He  is  pre-eminent  above 
all  his  subjects.  He  must  be  reverenced  and  is  inviolable.  He  has,  indeed, 
to  pay  due  respect  to  the  law,  but  the  law  has  no  power  to  hold  him  account- 
able to  it.  Not  only  shall  there  be  no  irreverence  for  the  Emperor's  person, 
but  also  shall  he  not  be  made  a  topic  of  derogatory  comment  nor  one  of 
discussion." 

1  Chamberlain,  Things  Japanese,  p.  70. 

2  K.  Kawakami,  The  Political  Ideas  of  Modern  Japan,  p.  74. 


14  Christianity  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan. 

in  a  former  state  of  existence,  and  so  could  not  be  avoided. 
Shikata  ga  nai  (there  is  no  help  for  it),  is  a  much-used  and  much- 
abused  expression  in  Japan,  i 

According  to  Japanese  Buddhism,  there  are  "six  ways  of  life" 
(Rokudo),  and  lust  is  what  keeps  people  out  of  the  higher  paths. 
Each  one  of  us  is  toiling  in  one  of  the  following  six  "ways":  the 
world  of  hell,  the  world  of  hungry  devils,  the  world  of  beasts,  the 
world  of  disembodied  spirits,  the  world  of  man,  and  the  world  of 
heaven.  2 

The  duty  of  kindness  to  all  animals  is  a  Buddhist  teaching 
that  has  had  a  great  effect  on  Japanese  life.  On  account  of  this 
doctrine,  meat  diet  was  displaced  by  vegetable  food,  as  the  kill- 
ing of  animals  for  meat  was  abhorrent  to  the  faithful.  All  lower 
animals  are  the  result  of  reborn  human  beings.  3 

Buddhism,  with  its  moral  code  for  the  uneducated,  its  pro- 
found philosophy  for  the  educated  and  its  well-organized  priest- 
hood and  elaborate  temple  service,  exerted  an  immense  civilizing 
influence  on  Japan  for  over  a  thousand  years  (A.  D.  552-1600). 
It  was  Japan's  educator  in  literature,  art,  architecture,  ethics  and 
aesthetics.  The  whole  of  Chinese  civilization  was  brought  to 
Japan  by  Buddhism,  and  there  it  modified  the  imported  civili- 
zation to  suit  Japanese  requirements. 

Thus  the  reUgion  of  Buddha  has  been  a  great  power  for  good 
in  Japan,  but  its  fatalism  or  lack  of  moral  responsibility,  its 
pessimism,  its  low  estimation  of  the  value  of  human  life,  do  not 
make  for  the  highest  morality.  As  a  religion,  it  no  longer  com- 
mands the  respect  of  many  educated  Japanese.  Often  a  con- 
tempt, far  too  great,  is  shown  towards  it.  Though  it  has  become 
corrupt,  it  yet  retains  a  powerful  influence  over  the  mass  of  the 


1  Otis  Gary,  Japan  and  Its  Regeneration,  p.  45. 

2  Transactions  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Japan,  Vol.  XXII,  Part  III,  p.  366. 

3  This  cannot  have  been  the  case  with  fish,  as  it  has  always  been  eaten. 
Says  Lafcadio  Hearn,  "Who  could  even  be  sure  that  the  goaded  ox,  the  over- 
driven horse,  or  the  slaughtered  bird  had  not  formerly  been  a  human  being 
of  closest  kin — ancestor,  parent,  brother,  sister  or  child?" 


Antecedents  of  Christianity  in  Japan  15 

people,  but  it  seems  to  be  unable  to  provide  what  the  times  de- 
mand, i 

Confucianism. — The  teaching  of  Confucius  was  brought  to 
Japan  early  in  the  Christian  era,  but  during  the  thousand  years  of 
Buddhist  supremacy  it  made  little  progress.  This  philosophy  is 
pantheistic  in  spirit,  but  Confucius  himself  never  declared  any 
opinion  at  all  about  the  gods,  or  concerning  a  future  existence. 
The  ''five  relations"  (gorin)  are  the  basis  of  the  system.  These 
relations  are  those  between  father  and  son,  lord  and  subject, 
husband  and  wife,  elder  brother  and  younger  brother  and  friend 
and  friend. 

In  China  filial  piety  was  the  first  and  greatest  relation,  but 
in  Japan  loyalty  to  the  powers  that  be,  was  given  first  place. 
The  meaning  of  the  third  relation  was  that  "each  one  should 
know  and  keep  his  or  her  own  place;  the  fourth  virtue  consisted 
in  recognizing  the  primacy  of  seniority  in  age"  and  the  fifth 
relation  emphasized  trust  between  friends. 2  The  Confucian 
ethics  became  the  moral  code  of  the  ruling  classes  in  Japan.  It 
contained  the  doctrine  of  vengeance,  which  forbade  a  man  to  live 
"under  the  same  heaven  with  the  slayer  of  his  lord,  parent  or 


1  In  the  Japan  Weekly  Mail  of  October  5,  1907,  the  following  appears: 
"The  Shukyokai  (The  Religious  World)  publishes  the  views  of  Mr.  Shimada 

Bankon,  the  well-known,  aged  Buddhist  priest,  on  'The  Future  of  Buddhism.' 
the  gist  of  which  is  as  follows:  'It  is  hard  to  find  anybody  nowadays  who 
believes  in  Buddhism  sufficiently  to  make  it  a  power  in  the  country.  In  all 
parts  of  Japan  our  adherents  are  lea\dng  us  to  join  the  Christians.  Among 
the  upper  classes  there  seems  to  be  scarcely  anybody  who  believes  in  Budd- 
hism to-day.  This  is  not  at  all  surprising,  for  how  many  priests  are  there 
in  the  whole  country  who  really  believe  in  the  religion?  It  is  a  case  of  "like 
priests  like  people."  Some  of  the  priests  are  agitating  for  Government  pro- 
tection. What  good  could  protection  do  them  even  if  they  had  it?  No 
government  can  put  life  into  a  dying  creed.  In  times  past,  I  did  my  very 
best  to  arouse  men  from  their  slumbers,  but  in  recent  years  I  have  come  to 
think  that  the  case  is  hopeless.  With  such  priests  as  we  see  to-day,  there 
is  no  future  for  Buddhism.  Is  it  not  a  fact  that  some  of  them,  in  order  to 
save  themselves  from  utter  extinction,  are  proposing  to  unite  with  the 
Christians?'" 

2  Clement,  A  Handbook  of  Modern  Japan,  p.  2,50. 


16  Christianity  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan 

brother."  It  inculcated  absolute  submission  to  authority,  and 
this  principle  fitted  in  admirably  with  the  main  ideas  of  Japanese 
feudalism.  leyasu,  in  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
ordered  the  Confucian  classics  to  be  printed  in  Japan,  and  for 
the  entire  period  of  "locked  Japan"  and  rigid  feudahsm,  Con- 
fucianism formed  the  basis  of  Japanese  education  and  morals. 
The  best  fruit  of  this  Japonicized  Confucianism  is  known  by  the 
name  of  Bushido. 

Bushido  means  the  "Warrior's  Way," — the  ethical  code  of 
Japanese  chivalry.  While  largely  Confucian,  it  also  contains 
some  Shinto  and  Buddhistic  elements.  The  combined  result 
was  the  samurai  (knight),  a  peculiar  type  that  influenced  Japan- 
ese character  most  profoundly,  i  Bushido,  a  present,  corresponds 
somewhat  to  the  American  "spread-eagleism."  Among  students 
and  orators,  the  word  is  continually  heard.  As  used  by  them, 
it  is  the  incarnation  of  Yamato-damashii,  the  soul  of  unconquer- 
able Japan.     In  a  word,  it  is  the  religion  of  honor  and  loyalty. 2 

The  Japanese  samurai  possessed  the  best  culture  and  morals  of 
his  age.  Dr.  Griffis  says  of  him,  "Thus  the  samurai,  at  once  sol- 
dier and  scholar,  warrior  and  gentleman,  is  the  consummate 
white  flower  of  Japanese  civilization,  the  creator  of  public  opinion, 
who  wields  the  destinies  of  his  country."  Their  moral  ideal  was 
expressed  by  themselves  thus:  "To  the  samurai  first  of  all  right- 
eousness, next  life,  then  silver  and  gold.  These  last  are  of  value, 
but  some  put  them  in  place  of  righteousness.  But  to  the  samurai, 
even  life  is  as  dirt  compared  with  righteousness."  The  samurai 
was  carefully  trained  in  bravery,  courage,  politeness,  honor,  self; 
control  and,  above  all,  loyalty.  But  unfortunately,  this  code  of 
honor  very  often  ignored  chastity,  and  encouraged  revenge  and 
suicide.  The  story  of  Japanese  chivalry  is  almost  incredible  in 
its  awful  suicides.  3 


1  Japan  Evangelist,  Vol.  XV,  No.  1,  p.  7. 

2  See  Dr.  Nitobe's,  Bushido,  the  Soul  of  Japan,  for  a  flattering  account  of 
this  patriotic  code  of  morals. 

3  "The  number  of  suicides  reported  by  the  daily  press  in  this  country  is 
appalling.     The  way  that  suicide  cases  are  treated  by  irresponsible  news- 


Antecedents  of  Christianity  in  Japan  17 

The  opposite  of  European  chivalry  in  its  regard  for  women, 
it  did  not  prevent  the  sale  of  daughters  to  shame  under  the  guise 
of  filial  piety;  it  cared  not  whether  the  concubine  entered  the 
home  or  not;  and  it  reduced  woman,  generally,  to  a  low  position, i 
It  was  a  superb  sj'stem  of  patriotic  honor,  but  it  does  not  appear 
to  meet  the  recjuirements  of  every-day,  civil  Ufe  in  times  of  peace 
and  amid  the  complicated  problems  of  modern  civilization. 

Feudalism. — Lafcadio  Hearn  asserts  that  almost  the  whole 
of  authentic  Japanese  history  is  comprised  in  one  vast  episode: 
the  rise  and  fall  of  the  military  power.  It  looks  as  though  the 
entire  social  organization  of  ancient  Japan — as  represented  in  the 
clan-families — was  a  preparation  for  the  feudalism  of  later  years. 
Family  hfe,  reUgion,  and  politics,  all  pointed  in  the  same  direction. 
The  emperor  was  considered  a  heaven-descended  monarch,  and 
too  holy  to  do  administrative  work.  Consequently  the  Chinese 
bureaucratic  form  of  government  was  introduced.  With  this 
came  Chinese  learning  and  luxury.  In  the  seventeenth  century, 
one  hundred  and  eight  departments  were  created  by  the  emperor 
Temmu.  The  military  governor,  at  first,  w^as  appointed  by  the 
emperor,  but  in  time  complete  usurpation  of  power  took  place, 


paper  scribblers  tends  to  make  readers  regard  self-destruction  as  one  of  the 
finest  of  heroic  acts.  At  the  beginning  of  this  month  a  drunken  student  who 
had  been  plucked  at  high  school  went  to  a  brothel,  and,  after  cutting  the 
throat  of  a  miserable  prostitute,  put  an  end  to  himself  in  the  same  way. 
This  abominable  action  formed  the  subject  of  long  paragraphs  in  one  of  the 
local  papers,  entitled  'A  Magnificent  Way  of  Dying.'  *  *  *  it  seems  to  us 
that  the  old  samurai  admiration  for  suicides,  instead  of  dying  out,  has  re- 
vived during  the  last  few  years.  *  *  *  it  will  be  remembered  by  some 
readers  that  a  few  years  ago  Japan's  greatest  philosopher.  Dr.  Kato  Hiroyuki, 
contributed  an  article  to  the  Taiyo  in  defence  of  suicide  committed  by  de- 
feated troops,  extoUing  it  to  the  skies  as  a  piece  of  heroism  in  which  Japanese 
surpassed  all  other  countries.  The  men  applauded  for  their  patriotism  by 
Dr.  Kato  did  not,  however,  commit  suicide.  They  had  more  common  sense 
than  they  were  credited  with.  But  suicide  is  praised  to-day  in  the  most 
open  way  by  hundreds  of  educated  Japanese.  Feudal  Japan  is  by  no  means 
dead,  as  some  sanguine  folks  imagine."  The  Japan  Weekly  Mail,  August  1, 
1908. 

1  Clement,  A  Handbook  of  Modern  Japan,  Chapter  XVIII. 


18  Chnstiamhj  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan 

and  the  new  office  became  hereditary.  Nominally,  the  shogun 
(military  governor)  was  subject  to  the  emperor,  but  in  fact,  the 
emperor  was  dependent  upon  the  shogun.  It  was  a  powerful 
device  on  the  part  of  the  shoguns  to  foster  and  encourage  among 
the  people  the  belief  that  the  Mikado  was  divine  and,  therefore, 
too  sacred  to  have  anything  to  do  with  war,  money  or  actual 
government. 

The  Fujiwara  family,  as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  seventh 
century,  began  to  monopoUze  the  civil  offices,  and  to  supply  the 
emperors  with  wives  and  concubines.^  The  strong  Fujiwara  clan 
continued  in  power  till  1050,  when  the  Taira  and  Minamoto  fami- 
lies began  to  struggle  for  the  shogun's  position.  This  struggle 
came  to  an  end  when,  in  1185,  Yortiomo,  of  the  Minamotos, 
became  military  governor.  From  this  time  on  to  the  Restora- 
tion in  1867,  Japan  was  in  the  grip  of  feudalism,  and  possessed 
a  dual  form  of  government. 

The  Ho  jo  family  ruled  during  the  thirteenth  century  and  for 
some  years  afterwards.  At  a  period  of  degeneracy,  Ashikaga 
became  head,  and  gave  the  country  fifteen  rulers,  who  reigned 
during  the  gloomiest  period  of  Japan's  Dark  Ages.  Then  came 
the  remarkable  trio  of  great  men,  Nobunaga,  Hideyoshi  and 
leyasu.  The  last-named  has  been  styled  the  Japanese  Julius 
Caesar.  He  began  to  drive  out  the  Jesuits,  and  established  the 
Tokugawa  shogunate.  lemitsu,  the  third  shogun  in  the  new 
line,  locked  the  doors  of  Japan,  which  remained  closed  for  almost 
two  hundred  and  fifty  j^ears.  The  feudal  fiefs  were  carefully  re- 
organized and  manned  with  lords  that  could  be  trusted  by  the 
shogun.  These  lords  were  required  to  give  the  very  best  security 
for  their  good  behavior.  At  regular  intervals  they  were  obliged 
to  spend  a  certain  time  in  Yedo  (Tokyo),  the  shogun's  capital. 
Whenever  the  lords  returned  to  their  daimiates  they  were  re- 
quired to  leave  their  families  in  the  capital  as  hostages.  Con- 
spiracy was  now  practically  impossible,  the  Jesuit  peril  was 
driven  out  of  the  country,  thirty  thousand  native  Christians  had 


Japan  Evangelist,  March,  1907. 


Antecedents  of  Christianity  in  Japan  19 

been  killed,  and  the  period  of  seclusion — exclusion  and  inclusion 
— had  begun. 

Two  reasons  have  been  assigned  wh}-  the  doors  of  Japan  were 
so  securely  closed.  One  of  these  reasons  was  fear  of  Jesuit  con- 
spiracy. It  has  been  amply  proved  that  this  fear  was  well 
founded.  The  other  reason  is  found  in  the  extreme  native 
pride.  This  pride  was  expressed  in  edicts  such  as  the  following: 
"So  long  as  the  sun  shall  warm  the  earth,  let  no  Christian  be  so 
bold  as  to  come  to  Japan,  and  let  all  know  that  the  king  of  Spain 
himself  or  the  Christian's  God,  or  the  great  God  of  all,  if  he  vio- 
lates this  command,  shall  pay  for  it  with  his  head." 

Thus  Japan's  long  sleep  commenced — but  let  it  be  remembered 
that  it  was  the  sleep  of  a  chrysalis.  Before  half  of  the  period  of 
this  seeming  inactivity  vras  over,  the  sleeper  began  to  have  won- 
derful dreams — dreams  which  in  later  days  were  remarkably 
fulfilled.  Let  us  take  a  brief  glance  at  this  ancient  sleeping  giant 
at  a  time  just  before  he  awakes  in  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  We  find  that  the  powerless  Mikado  continued  to  be 
worshiped  as  the  Son  of  Heaven  even  by  the  shoguns.  The 
Tokugawa  family  held  the  power  over  about  two  hundred  and 
seventy  feudal  lords,  who  were  divided  into  four  classes.  These 
lords  regularly  paid  much  homage  and  more  tribute  to  the  shogun 
at  Yedo.  Their  total  number  of  retainers  (samurai)  was  not  far 
from  two  miUions,  who  were  also  divided    into  different  classes. 

The  common  people  (Jieimin)  were  classified  as  farmers, 
artisans  and  merchants.  Of  the  heimin,  the  farmers  were  the 
highest  and  the  merchants  the  lowest  in  rank.  Hopelessly  below 
the  heimin  were  two  classes  of  beings  that  were  hardly  considered 
human,  the  eta,  who  were  well-diggers,  grave-diggers,  torturers, 
and  butchers;  and  the  hinin  (not-human-beings),  who  were 
mendicants,  certain  kinds  of  prostitutes  and  outlaws  in  general. 
"To  take  the  life  of  a  hinin  was  not  considered  murder,  and  was 
punishable  only  by  a  fine."i 

Society  in  general  was  becoming  restive,  but  was  strictly  con- 


1  Lafcadio  Hearn,  Japan,  an  Interpretation,  p.  273. 


20  Christianity  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan 

trolled.  Very  heavy  taxes  were  demanded  from  the  people. 
Distrust  between  the  feudal  lords  and  the  shogun  was  universal. 
Personality  was  suppressed  by  coercion,  and  "the  individual 
did  not  exist  except  for  punishment."  The  different  clans, 
towns,  villages,  districts,  while  externally  united,  had  each  its 
own  peculiar  customs  and  sphere  of  activity.  Meihutsu  is  a 
word  which  is  very  frequently  heard  in  Japan.  It  refers  to  the 
special  product,  such  as  of  art,  food,  etc.,  that  makes  its  place 
of  manufacture  famous.  This  product  usually  is  not  made  at 
any  other  place  in  the  country.  Japan  had  now  reached  her 
acme  in  art,  ceramics,  lacquer,  metal-work  and  painting.  The 
Dutch  on  the  island  of  Deshima  had  introduced  into  Japan 
some  medical  knowledge  and  other  sciences,  as  well  as  some  of 
the  more  modern  inventions  as  they  were  known  in  Europe  at 
that  time. 

In  religion,  there  was  an  eclecticism  of  Shinto,  Buddhism, 
Confucianism  and  Bushido,  which  meant  in  practical  life,  nature- 
worship,  ancestor-worship,  loyalty  and  a  certain  kind  of  stoicism. 

But  the  giant,  through  his  long  sleep,  had  become  stronger, 
and  underneath  the  social  surface  the  revolutionary  spirit  was 
fast  gaining  in  power.  This  spirit  finally  succeeded  in  breaking 
down  the  existing  order  of  things,  restored  the  emperor  to  his 
original  position  as  ruler,  and  re-opened  Japan  to  the  world. 

The  Restoration. — Though  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century  seemed  to  be  a  time  of  profound  peace  in  Japan,  we 
have  noticed  that  the  feudal  system  was  fast  becoming  under- 
mined. The  lords  lived  in  magnificent  luxury,  and  this  was  the 
cause  of  unbearable  taxation  and  oppression  for  the  peasantry. 
At  a  certain  time  the  taxes  amounted  to  twenty-two  million 
koku  of  rice  out  of  a  total  production  of  thirty  milUon  koku.  More- 
over, the  shoguns  were  compelled  to  relax  their  control  over  the 
stronger  lords,  because  the  nation  was  tired  of  over-government. i 

Another  cause  of  the  break  was  the  important  intellectual 
movement  that  was  started  by  the  Mito  family.     In  1715  the 


1  Aston,  Japanese  Literature,  p.  383. 


Antecedents  of  Christianity  in  Japan  21 

Dai  Nihon  Shi,  a  history  of  two  hundred  and  forty-three  volumes, 
was  completed.  This  work  had  been  begun  by  the  second  prince 
of  Mito,  who  died  in  1700.  It  has  been  said  that  in  this  historical 
research  the  Restoration  of  1868  had  its  real  birth.  These 
scholars  of  history  soon  discovered  that  the  emperor  in  former 
ages  had  been  absolute  in  power.  Their  assiduous  study  of  Con- 
fucianism also  pointed  to  absolute  monarchy  as  a  desirable  form 
of  government.  Thus  the  deep  patriotism  and  a  renewed  love 
for  the  emperor  was  kindled  in  the  hearts  of  the  educated  class. 

The  commercial  and  industrial  classes  realized  more  and  more 
that  a  military  state  is  the  arch-enemy  of  industry  and  economic 
activity.  Hence,  opposition  to  the  feudal  system  was  very 
powerful  in  this  part  of  Japanese  society. 

Such  were  some  of  the  causes  of  the  Restoration,  and  such  the 
internal  forces  at  work;  but  to  provide  the  proper  occasion  for 
complete  success,  external  forces  were  also  needed.  ^  These  were 
found  in  the  Dutch  factory  at  Nagasaki,  in  the  anxiety  caused 
by  the  troubles  of  China  at  the  loss  of  Hongkong,  and  most  of 
all,  in  the  landing  of  Commodore  Perry,  in  1853-4,  and  in  the 
treaty  of  comity  which  he  made  with  Japan.  Some  years  later, 
the  bombardment  of  Kagoshima  and  Shimonoseki  showed  the 
utter  weakness  of  feudalism,  proved  conclusively  the  superior 
strength  of  the  West,  and  pointed  out  the  absolute  necessity  of 
national  unity  on  the  part  of  Japan. 

In  a  few  years,  most  of  the  feudal  lords  had  voluntarily  resigned 
all  their  rights,  and  in  1865  the  emperor  himself  ratified  the 
treaties  of  comity  to  which  the  shogunate  had  assented  on  its 
own  authority,  eleven  years  before.  In  November,  1868,  the 
emperor  left  the  ancient  capital  of  Kyoto,  to  enter  Tokyo,  the 
new  capital.  Feudalism  was  totally  abolished.  The  lords 
were  given  the  title  of  baron  and  received  government  pensions, 
but  the  samurai  were  deprived  of  their  former  support,  and  in  a 
day,  many  became  as  poor  as  the  poorest.  This  has  been  of 
immense    social    consequence    to    Japan.     The    merchants    had 


1  See  Y.  Olio's  Industrial  Transition  of  Japan. 


22  Christianity  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan 

always  been  considered  as  constituting  the  lowest  rank  of  society, 
and  society  in  general  despised  them,  and  always  suspected  them 
of  commercial  immorality.  But  they  were  necessarily  the  class 
that  was  destined  to  represent  Japan  in  the  commerce  of  the 
world.  The  samurai,  who  represented  the  best  in  art,  education 
and  morals,  had  neither  the  money,  the  inclination  nor  the  kind 
of  ability  needed  to  enter  the  business  world;  consequently  the 
outside  world  has  come  to  hold  a  very  low  opinion  of  the  Japan- 
ese merchants,  and  illogically,  the  conclusion  is  reached  by 
Westerners  that  all  Japanese  are  dishonest.  This  is  a  gross 
error,  one  that  has  done  untold  injustice  and  injury  to  Japan 
as  a  nation.  It  is  a  most  important  social  problem,  but  Japan 
is  slowly  solving  it  by  trying  to  elevate  the  commercial  morality 
of  those  of  her  merchants  that  need  it,i  and  by  inducing  samurai 
to  enter  the  business  world. 2 

With  the  downfall  of  feudalism,  the  emperor  again  became 
absolute  monarch,  and  a  centralized  government  and  national 
unity  were  re-established.  But  with  the  new  life  and  foreign  in- 
tercourse, democratic  ideas  made  their  appearance,  and  these 
ideas  in  the  minds  of  the  people,  caused  the  emperor  to  take  his 
famous  "fike  oaths,"  by  which  he  promised:  (1)  deUberative 
assembhes;  (2)  the  government  and  people  in  harmony  to  pro- 
mote the  national  welfare;  (3)  all  classes  freely  to  exercise  their 


1  Dr.  I^add,  in  1907,  under  government  auspices,  delivered  a  number  of 
lectures  on  this  general  subject  in  many  cities  of  Japan.  Among  other  things, 
he  said:  "Japan's  business  morality  is  below  par  on  the  markets  of  the 
world.  She  has  been  blamed  too  much,  but  I  am  sorry  that  there  is  some 
truth  in  the  charges.  The  world  of  industry  requires  more  loyalty  than  war 
does." 

2  In  the  New  York  Evening  Sun  of  July  23,  1908,  the  following  appeared: 
"George  Kennan,  just  arrived  in  New  York  after  a  stay  in  Japan,  told  to-day 
of  his  belief  that  Japan  would  by  peaceful  methods  conquer  the  commerce  of 
the  Pacific.  They  would  underbid  and  undersell  American  m.erchants,  he 
said.  He  believed  that  they  were  on  the  way  toward  reaching  the  white 
man's  standard  of  commercial  honesty,  too.  The  Samurai  class,  he  said, 
were  now  entering  business,  and  bringing  with  them  the  needful  standard  of 
business  honor." 


Antecedents  of  Christianity  in  Japan  23 

abilities;!  (4)  impartiality  and  justice  to  all;  (5)  that  learning 
and  knowledge  shall  be  sought  for  throughout  the  whole  world 
in  order  to  add  to  the  glory  of  the  empire.  2 

This  last  oath  has  been  most  carefully  and  most  assiduously 
carried  out.  Brilliant  scholars  along  all  lines  have,  ever  since, 
been  sent  to  Europe  and  America.  These  carry  back  with  them 
the  best  of  Western  ideas  and  institutions.  Japan  adopts  these 
and  adapts  them  to  her  own  needs.  Hence  the  rapidity  of  tran- 
sition in  government,  education,  army,  navy,  industries,  trans- 
portation, communications,  finance  and  courts  of  law.  In  prac- 
tically all  of  these  departments,  Japan  stands  on  a  par  with  the 
most  advanced  Occidental  nations. 

Thus  through  the  combined  contributions  of  East  and  West 
a  New  Japan  has  been  most  rapidly  evolved.  The  ancient  clan 
morals  are  now  sadly  deficient,  for  a  world  people  must  have  a 
world  morality.  A  revolution  in  social  ethics  has  been  made 
necessary.  The  best  and  most  intelligent  people  of  Japan  very 
keenly  feel  this  need.  Some  look  for  the  revitahzation  of  the  old 
religions;  others  claim  that  loyalty  and  filial  piety  are  all  the 
morality  that  is  needed  for  the  Orient ;  still  others  say  that  science 
and  modern  education  will  solve  all  possible  problems;  a  fourth 
class  of  people  looks  very  hopefully  to  Christianity  for  the  needed 
moral  power. 

As  has  been  said  before,  the  ethical  forces  of  Old  Japan — 
Shinto,  Buddhism,  Confucianism,  Bushido,  feudalism  and 
ancestor-worship,  while  exceedingly  powerful  in  many  respects, 
all  tended  more  or  less  to  suppress  personality,  and  to  rate  the 
worth  of  human  life  at  a  low  figure.  Can  Christianity,  under 
such  conditions,  supply  Japan  with  the  moral  pabulum  Avhich  her 
new  life  has  made  necessary?  What  progress,  if  any,  has  Christi- 
anity already  made  towards  the  social  regeneration  of  Modern 
Japan?  In  the  following  chapters  an  attempt  is  made  to  answer 
these  two  questions. 


1  By  this,  982,800  eta  and  hinin  were  made  citizens. 

2  K.  Kawakami,  Political  Ideas  of  Modern  Japan,  Chapter  V. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  SECOND  COMING  OF  CHRISTIANITY.     ITS  INFLUENCE 
ON  GOVERNMENT  AND  EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN 

Remnant  of  Jesuit  Christianity.  Opposition  to  Christianity.  Com- 
mercial Treaties.  Religious  Freedom.  Christians  in  the  Diet. 
Legal  Codes.  "  Free  Cessation."  Christian  Schools.  Discrimina- 
tion Against  Christian  Schools  Removed.  Criticism  of  Christian 
Education  in  Japan.  Female  Education  in  Japan.  Christian 
Girls'  Schools  and  the  Department  of  Education.     The  Fine  Arts. 

The  question  whether  Christianity  is  able  to  make  any  lasting 
impression  upon  the  Japanese  is  fairly  well  answered  by  the  fact 
that  in  1865,  on  the  Island  of  Kyushu,  several  Christian  communi- 
ties were  discovered,  survivors  of  the  Jesuit  evangehzation  of 
over  two  centuries  before.  These  Christians,  numbering  five  or 
six  thousand,  had  preserved  certain  prayers,  the  rite  of  baptism 
and  a  few  books.  They  were  the  descendants  of  men  and  women 
who,  at  the  risk  of  their  lives,  had  secretly  kept  up  their  faith 
through  over  two  hundred  years  of  strong  proscription  and  cruel 
persecution. 

The  government,  in  1867  to  1870,  organized  an  inquisition  to 
hunt  out  all  such  Christians.  They  refused  to  give  up  their  faith, 
and  as  a  consequence,  they  were  torn  from  their  native  places 
and  distributed  over  the  empire  and  were  kept  as  the  prisoners 
of  the  various  feudal  lords.  In  1873  they  were  released,  though, 
on  account  of  torture  and  harsh  treatment,  many  had  died  before 
freedom  came.i 

It  is,  therefore,  not  strictly  correct  to  say  that  Christianity 
re-entered  Japan  at  the  opening  of  the  country.  The  fact  is 
that  the  government,  with  all  its  severity,  had  failed  to  stamp 


1  Chamberlaiu,  Things  Japanese,  p.  287. 
24 


The  Second  Coming  of  Christianity  25 

out  completely  the  Jesuit  faith.  But  a  new  type  of  Roman 
CathoUcism  was  introduced  in  1858.  Protestantism  came  in 
1859,  and  the  Greek  Church  in  1861. 

By  bearing  in  mind  the  content  and  spirit  of  the  politics  and 
religions  of  old  Japan,  and  also  the  Jesuit  episode,  it  can  readily 
be  imagined  that  Christianity  would  not  be  welcomed  very 
warmly;  for  the  Christian  religion  in  very  many  points  is  dia- 
metrically opposed  to  the  doctrines  and  ideals  current  in  Japan 
at  the  time  of  her  great  political  and  economic  transition. i 

One  of  the  fundamental  doctrines  of  Jesus  is  the  infinitely  high 
value  that  He  placed  on  human  life.  According  to  his  teachings, 
one  human  life  is  worth  more  than  the  whole  world  of  material 
possessions.  The  blind,  the  crippled  and  the  diseased  must  be 
saved  because  they  are  human  beings;  and  even  the  moral  de- 
linquent, the  prodigal,  because  he  is  human,  must  be  brought 
back,  if  possible.  Christianity  holds  that  human  beings  are  the 
sons  of  God  and  that  for  the  sake  of  these  sons  of  God,  Christ 
was  willing  to  die  the  death  of  the  cross. 

Closely  related  to  this  immense  worth  of  the  individual  is  the 
idea  of  democratic  government,  which  was  another  cause  of 
friction.  Christianity  gives  Christ  the  first  place  and  believes 
Him  divine;  the  Japanese  gives  his  emperor  first  place,  and 
believes  him  divine.  Christianity  says,  "Worship  your  great 
Spiritual  Ancestor  only,  the  heavenly  Father;"  the  Japanese 
worship  their  physical  ancestors.  So  government  and  religion 
stood  in  absolute  opposition  to  Christianity.  Dr.  Kato,  even 
now,  teaches  that  it  is  treason  for  a  Japanese  to  become  a  Chris- 
tian, and  that  the  idea  of  human  brotherhood  is  the  death- 
stroke  to  all  real  patriotism.  2 


1  A.  very  well  educated  Japanese  gentle tnau  once  told  me  that  the  idea  of 
eternal  life,  which  is  so  much  emphasized  by  Christianity,  was  abhorrent  to 
a  faithful  Buddhist,  for,  unendino;,  conscious  existence  would,  to  his  mind, 
amount  to  a  very  hell. 

2  "It  is  the  same  spirit  of  loyalty  that  has  made  it  hard  for  Christianity  to 
get  a  foothold  in  Japan.  The  emperor  was  the  representative  of  the  gods  of 
Japan.     To  embrace  a  new  religion  seemed  a  desertion  of  him  and  the  follow- 


26  Christianity  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan 

European  agnosticism  early  found  good  soil  in  Japan  and 
added  strength  to  the  opposition.  The  accepting  of  a  foreign 
religion  was  interpreted  by  some  as  a  reflection  on  the  native 
institutions,  and  the  fear,  partly  induced  by  the  Jesuit  experi- 
ence, that  the  Christian  nations  would  follow  their  religion  and 
conquer  Japan,  was  also  of  some  weight  in  the  early  days. 

On  Sunday,  July  10,  1853,  while  Commodore  Perry's  ships  were 
anchored  off  Uraga,  at  the  entrance  of  Yedo  Bay,  Protestant 
Christianity  for  the  first  time  directly  affected  Japan.  Treaty 
communications  were  discontinued  by  Perry,  and  no  visitors  were 
allowed  on  shipboard,  because  it  was  the  Christian  Sabbath. 
The  Japanese  much  desired  to  continue  communications,  but 
Perry  observed  the  day  by  holding  divine  services  on  board  the 
ships.  1 

Townsend  Harris,  a  noble  Christian  man,  was  the  first  United 
States  minister  to  Japan.  In  1859  he  succeeded  in  making  the 
first  commercial  treaty  between  his  own  country  and  Japan. 
In  this  treaty  a  clause  occurs  which  "provides  for  the  free  exer- 
cise of  their  religion  by  the  Americans,  with  the  right  to  erect 
suitable  places  of  worship,  and  that  the  Japanese  would  abohsh 
the  practice  of  trampling  on  the  cross.  "2 

Immediately  after  this  treaty  had  been  signed,  missionaries 
slowly  began  to  come  to  Japan.  But  anti-Christian  edicts  were 
still  displayed  all  over  the  country.  On  March  10,  1872,  the 
first  Christian  Japanese  Church  was  organized  in  Yokohama, 
with  eleven  members.  In  the  same  3^ear,  the  Gregorian  or  Chris- 
tian Calendar  was  adopted,  to  go  into  effect  from  January  1,  1873; 


in"'  of  the  strange  gods  of  the  foreigner.  The  work  of  the  Catholic  missionaries, 
which  ended  so  disastrously  in  1637,  has  left  the  impression  that  a  Christian 
is  bound  to  offer  allegiance  to  the  pope  in  much  the  same  way  as  the  emperor 
now  receives  it  from  his  people;  and  the  bitterness  of  such  a  thought  has 
made  many  refuse  to  hear  what  Christianity  really  is.  Such  words  as  'King' 
and  'Lord'  they  have  understood  as  referring  to  temporal  things,  and  it  has 
taken  years  to  undo  this  prejudice." — Alice  M.  Bacon. 

iClement's  Christianity  in  Modern  Japan,  p.  6. 

2Griffis,  Townsend  Harris- 


The  Second  Coming  of  Christianity  27 

and  on  February  19,  1873,  was  issued  the  decree  which  removed 
the  edicts  against  Christianity  from  the  official  bulletin  boards 
of  the  empire.  The  foreign  powers  had  long  protested  against 
these  edicts  and  the  cruel  tortures  to  which  the  remnants  of 
Jesuit  Christianity  was  subjected.  Torture  in  the  courts  of  law 
was  abolished  in  1873.1 

Dr.  Guido  Verbeck,  a  missionary  of  the  first  magnitude,  having 
arrived  in  Japan  in  November  of  1859,  was  soon  called  to  the 
service  of  the  new  government  which  was  to  be  formed.  He  was 
sent  for  when  Tokj'o  was  made  the  capital.  He  became  general 
government  adviser  and  was  the  first  director  of  the  Imperial 
University,  which  was  just  being  re-established.  It  was  Ver- 
beck's  great  influence  that  caused  Marquis  Ito  (now  Prince)  to 
say,  "Japan's  progress  and  development  are  largely  due  to  the 
influence  of  missionaries  exerted  when  Japan  was  first  studying 
the  outer  world. "2 

The  first  treaties  of  commerce  that  were  made  with  Japan 
contained  an  extra-territoriality  clause.  This  meant  that  in  the 
eyes  of  foreign  nations  Japan  was  not  a  sovereign  state.  This, 
of  course,  offended  Japan's  pride,  and  continual  efforts  were 
made  to  get  rid  of  this  discrimination.  No  sooner  had  the 
emperor  been  restored  to  power  than  an  imperial  embassy  was 
sent  to  America  and  Europe.  This  embassy  was  to  secure  the 
removal  of  the  extra-territoriality  clause  in  the  treaties,  and  to 
study  Western  institutions.  Dr.  Verbeck  planned  the  embassy 
and  its  itinerary.     He  had  also  told  the  new  government  that 


l"This  forward  step  was  entirely  due  to  a  Frenchman  who  codified  the 
Japanese  law.  One  day  while  at  the  work  of  codification  he  heard  groans 
in  an  adjoining  apartment,  and  asked  what  they  meant.  An  evasive  answer 
was  returned;  but  he  persisted,  and  finally  burst  into  the  room  whence  the 
groans  issued,  to  find  a  man  stretched  on  the  torture-boards  with  layers  of 
heavy  stones  piled  on  his  legs.  Returning  to  his  Japanese  colleagues,  he 
plainly  told  them  that  such  horrors  and  ci\'ilized  law  could  not  co-exist,  that 
torture  must  cease  instantly,  or  that  he  must  resign.  This  firm  stand  brought 
about  the  immediate  disuse  of  this  practice." — Chamberlain,  Things  Japanese, 
p.  165. 

2Barton,  The  Missionary  and  His  Critics,  p.  135. 


28  Christianity  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan 

unless  the  edicts  against  Christianity  were  removed,  no  country 
would  remove  the  extra-territoriality  clause. 

Prince  Iwakura,  who  was  the  head  of  the  embassy,  soon  found 
out  that  Dr.  Verbeck's  estimation  was  right,  and  long  before  they 
reached  Japan,  he  telegraphed  back  that  the  anti-Christian  edict 
boards  should  be  removed.  Afterwards,  Verbeck  became 
adviser  to  the  new  Imperial  Japan  Senate. 

As  a  mark  of  esteem,  the  emperor  decorated  this  humble  mis- 
sionary with  the  "Order  of  the  Rising  Sun."  "Dr.  Verbeck  has 
impressed  his  stamp  on  the  whole  future  history  of  renovated 
Japan."! 

The  removal  of  these  edicts  was  the  first  step  toward  religious 
toleration  and  Uberty  of  conscience  in  Japan,  i  The  final  step 
toward  this  liberty  was  taken  on  February  11,  1889,  when  the 
emperor  granted  a  constitution  to  the  people.  The  twenty-eighth 
article  of  that  constitution  reads  as  follows:  "Japanese  subjects 
shall,  within  the  limits  not  prejudicial  to  peace  and  order,  and 
not  antagonistic  to  their  duties  as  subjects,  enjoy  freedom  of 
reUgious  belief." 

Christianity,  though  in  history  a  very  poor  example  of  tolera- 
tion, is  the  real  cause  of  the  religious  liberty  which  Japan  is  en- 
joying. Professor  K.  Asakawa  points  out  that  the  beginning  of 
toleration  made  in  1872  had  been  occasioned  by  a  Catholic  perse- 
cution. The  clause  in  the  constitution  granting  religious  free- 
dom is  "due  to  the  unconscious  influence  of  the  Christian  Church 
in  Japan.  But  for  the  latter,  the  religious  clause  of  the  constitu- 
tion and  all  the  subsequent  laws  and  acts  embodying  the  common 
principle,  would  have  been  superfluous.  Thus  in  1889,  Christi- 
anity had  not  only  gained  a  legal  status,  but  legal  equality  with 
any  other  religion  in  the  realm.  "2 

In  March,  1876,  the  government  of  Japan  issued  the  following 
edict:  "It  is  hereby  notified  that  up  to  the  present  time  the  first 
and  sixth  days  have  been  observed  in  the  government  offices  as 


1  Christianity  in  Modern  Japan,  Chapter  II. 

2  K.  Asakawa,  Atlantic  Monthly,  Vol.  99,  p.  652  f. 


The  Second  Coming  of  Christianity  29 

the  days  of  rest.  But  hereafter  all  government  offices  will  be 
closed  on  Sundays."  This  was  an  unexpected  blessing  to  the 
infant  church  in  Japan.  In  the  early  days  the  government  em- 
ployed many  foreigners  in  almost  all  departments.  Many  of 
these,  because  of  their  religion,  refused  to  work  on  Sundays. 
Moreover,  the  foreign  legations  and  consulates  were  closed  on  that 
day,  so  that,  after  several  years  of  confusion,  the  government 
decided,  though  somewhat  unwillingly,  to  make  Sunday  a  legal 
holiday.  All  government  offices,  schools,  banks,  etc.,  are  closed 
on  that  day,  which  gives  those  of  the  employees  who  desire  to  do 
so,  the  chance  to  attend  church  services,  i 

Count  Katsura  (now  Marquis),  who  was  prime  minister  during 
the  Russo-Japanese  war,  granted  Dr.  Wm.  Imbrie  an  interview 
on  religious  matters.  His  aim  was  to  show  that  the  war  had 
nothing  whatsoever  to  do  with  differences  of  race  or  religion.  The 
following  extracts  contain  the  gist  of  the  interview,  and  may  be 
taken  as  a  fair  representation  of  the  present  attitude  of  the 
government : 

The  truth  is  that  Japan  stands  for  religious  freedom.  This  is  a  principle 
embodied  in  her  constitution;  and  her  practice  is  in  accordance  with  that 
principle.  There  are  Christian  churches  in  every  large  city,  and  in  every 
town  in  Japan;  and  they  aU  have  complete  freedom  to  worship  in  accordance 
with  their  own  convictions.  These  churches  send  out  men  to  extend  the 
influence  of  Christianity  from  one  end  of  the  country  to  the  other,  as  freely 
as  such  a  thing  might  be  done  in  the  United  States,  and  without  attracting 
any  more  attention.  There  are  numerous  Christian  newspapers  and  maga- 
zines, Christian  schools,  some  of  them  conducted  by  foreigners  and  some  by 
Japanese;  and  recently  an  ordinance  has  been  issued  under  which  Christian 
schools  of  a  certain  grade  are  able  to  obtain  all  the  privileges  granted  to  gov- 


1  "It  is  hard  to  estimate  the  value  this  edict  has  been  to  the  Christians  of 
Japan.  Before  it  was  issued  it  was  impossible  for  the  growing  Christian 
community  to  attend  church  with  any  regidarity.  While  the  majority  of  the 
people  take  little  notice  of  tlie  day,  it  is  known  as  the  Christians'  day  for 
preaching  and  worship.  Even  Buddhist  schools  close  on  Sundays,  and  the 
priests,  too,  use  this  day  for  special  preaching.  The  merchants  have  no  rest- 
days  at  all,  and  the  farmers  still  cling  to  their  local  days  of  rest,  but  with 
the  spread  of  Christianity,  Sunday  will  be  to  Japan  the  blessing  that  it  has 
been  to  other  nations."     De  Forest,  Sunrise  in  the  Sunrise  Kingdom,  p.  109  f. 


30  Christianity  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan 

eminent  schools  of  the  same  grade.  Missiouarj-  associations  are  allowed  to 
own  and  manage  land,  buildings  and  other  property,  for  the  extension  of 
Christianity,  the  carrjdng  on  of  Christian  education  and  the  performance  of 
works  of  charity  and  benevolence. 

The  immber  of  those  professing  Christianity  in  Japan  I  do  not  know;  but 
it  must  be  a  large  number,  with  a  much  larger  number  who  are  Christians  in 
their  affiliations.  The  Japanese  Christians  are  not  confined  to  any  one 
rank  or  class.  They  are  to  be  found  among  the  members  in  the  National 
Diet,  the  judges  in  the  courts,  the  professors  in  the  universities,  the  editors  of 
leading  secular  papers,  and  the  officers  of  the  army  and  navy.  Christian 
literature  has  entrance  into  the  military  and  naval  hospitals,  and  a  relatively 
large  number  of  the  trained  nurses  employed  in  them  are  Christian  women. 
Recently  arrangements  have  been  made  by  six  American  and  British  mission- 
aries and  six  Japanese  Christian  ministers  to  accompany  the  armies  in  Man- 
churia, in  the  capacity  of  spiritual  ad'»dsers  to  the  Christian  soldiers.^ 

Missionaries  and  Japanese  Christians  find  cause  for  rejoicing  in 
the  fact  that  the  recent  general  election  (1908)  resulted  in  the 
choice  of  fourteen  Christians  as  members  of  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives. The  number  of  enrolled  Christians  of  all  denomina- 
tions is  about  one  hundred  and  sixty  thousand  out  of  a  total 
population  of  fifty  millions,  or  about  three  out  of  a  thousand. 
The  fourteen  Christians  out  of  the  three  hundred  and  eighty 
members  of  the  lower  house,  are  about  four  out  of  a  hundred. 
The  Speaker  of  the  House  has  practically  always  been  a  Christian. 
The  late  Mr.  Kataoka  was  five  times  re-elected  to  the  speaker's 
chair.  In  addition  to  this  work,  he  was  president  of  the  largest 
Christian  college  in  the  empire. 

It  is  also  true  that  in  the  prefectural  governments  the  number 
of  Christians  is  disproportionately  large.  "It  is  the  powerful 
influence  of  Christian  sentiment  that  abolishes  and  keeps  aboUshed 
legal  prostitution  in  Gumma  perfecture."  This  would  go  to 
show  that  the  influence  of  Christianity  upon  Japan  cannot  be 
estimated  merely  by  numbers.  Professor  Clement  points  out 
that  the  relatively  large  number  of  Christians  is  elected  because 
of  the  high  reputation  and  established  character  of  these  men. 
And  their  success  in  those  positions  is  due,  in  no  small  degree,  to 


Clement,  Christianity  in  Modern  Japan,  pp.  139-140. 


The  Second  Coming  of  Christianity  31 

the  education  which  they  received  at  mission  schools,  and  to  the 
training  they  enjo3^ed  in  churcli  assembhes.i 

Moreover,  the  Christians  in  politics  are  ahnost  all  men  of  action 
and  influence.  Of  the  Christians  in  the  j^ resent  diet,  Shimada  is 
editor  of  the  Tokyo  Mainichi  Shinbum  and  is  very  active  in  social 
and  moral  reforms.  Nemoto  is  the  well-known  temperance 
champion.  He  is  the  author  of  the  anti-tobacco  bill,  which  pro- 
hibits the  sale  of  tobacco  to  minors.  This  is  now  a  law.  A  simi- 
lar anti-liciuor  bill  only  barely  failed  to  become  a  law.  Yokoi 
has  been  a  Congregational  pastor  and  president  of  Doshisha 
College.  Ishibashi  is  the  editor  of  the  Osaka  Asahi  Shinbum; 
and  Tawaga  is  editor  of  the  Miyako  Shinbum,  Tokyo.  Uzawa  is 
a  young  barrister,  recently  honored  with  the  degree  of  Hogaku 
Hakase,  or  Doctor  of  Laws.  Kurahara  worked  hard  in  America 
for  an  education  and  is  called  "the  scholar  without  a  penny." 
Hattori  is  well  known  in  Seattle,  where  he  was  active  in  Christian 
work  among  the  Japanese.  Takekoshi  is  the  author  of  "Japanese 
Rule  in  Formosa.  "2 

Legal  Codes. — It  has  been  happily  noted  that  the  new  legal 
codes  of  Japan  have  come  to  recognize  Christian  standards  in  their 
requirements.  The  individual  is  now  considered  as  a  per?on, 
not  only  as  a  part  of  a  family,  or  as  a  citizen  of  the  land.  By 
the  civil  code  that  went  into  effect  in  1898,  persons  became  adults 
on  reaching  the  age  of  twenty.  "Until  that  time  there  was  no 
such  a  thing  as  becoming  of  age  in  law.  Only  persons  who  were 
heads  of  families  enjoyed  entire  liberty  of  person,  unless  the 
people  having  authority  over  one's  person  were  all  dead."  The 
new  code  allows  a  young  man  of  thirty  and  a  young  woman  of 
twenty-five  to  marry  without  the  consent  of  their  respective 
families;  and  for  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  Japan,  the  wife 
also  can,  in  certain  cases,  bring  action  for  divorce. 3 

Concubinage  is  no  longer  recognized  by  law.     Provision  is  made 


1  Clement,  Christianity  in  Modern  Japan,  p.  169  f. 

2  Japan  Evangelist,  June,  1908. 

3  Murphy,  Social  Evil  in  Japan  (1908),  p.  64. 


32  Christianity  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan 

for  the  punishment  of  crimes  against  the  person  of  one  incapable 
of  resistance,  as  a  woman;  and  the  purchase  of  human  beings, 
with  the  intention  of  sending  them  out  of  the  country,  is  prohib- 
ited. 

Through  the  effort  of  the  Christian  Temperance  Workers,  the 
Salvation  Army,  and  other  missionaries,  a  most  important  legal 
point  was  gained  against  the  way  in  which  licensed  prostitution 
was  carried  on.  Formerly,  the  many  girls  who  were  sold  by  par- 
ents or  others  to  brothel-keepers  were  unable  to  escape  their 
slavery  except  by  the  permission  of  the  keeper  of  the  brothel. 
A  test  case  was  carried  up  through  all  the  courts  to  the  highest, 
and  finally  won  by  the  Christians  who  contended  that  a  girl 
should  not  be  kept  in  a  brothel  against  her  will.  Much  of  the 
force  of  this  decision  was,  however,  nullified  by  another  decision, 
which  made  the  debts  of  the  girls  to  their  employers  valid  and 
collectible  by  a  process  of  law,  from  the  girls  or  their  parents. 
The  brothel-keepers  see  to  it  that  the  girls  are  always  in  debt  to 
them.  But  the  outcome  of  it  all  was  that  the  Home  Department 
issued  Order  No.  44,  October  2,  1900,  which  is  entitled,  "Regu- 
lations for  the  control  of  prostitutes."  Articles  five  and  six  of 
this  order  are  the  happy  result  of  the  agitation  by  the  Christians 
for  ''Free  cessation."  Article  5  provides  that  requests  for 
erasure  from  the  prostitutes'  register  may  be  either  written  or 
oral.  Such  requests  shall  not  be  entertained  by  the  police  unless 
made  in  person  at  the  poHce  station ;  exceptions  shall  be  made  in 
the  case  of  requests  sent  by  mail  or  messenger,  where  the  police 
believe  there  are  reasons  that  the  applicant  cannot  appear  in 
person.  As  soon  as  requests  for  erasure  have  been  accepted  by 
the  police,  the  name  of  the  prostitute  making  the  request  must 
be  stricken  from  the  register.  Article  6  states  that  no  person, 
whatsoever,  shall  be  allowed  to  interfere  with  the  request  for 
erasure  from  the  official  register.! 

Education. — To  do  Christian  work  in  a  non-Christian  land, 
it  has  always  been  felt  that  Christian  schools  are  a  necessity 


!  Murphy,  Social  Evil  in  Japan,  p.  170. 


The  Second  Coming  of  Christianity  33 

from  the  very  beginning.  Native  ministers  and  teachers  must 
be  adequately  trained,  and  those  students  who  enter  the  world 
of  business,  if  thoroughly  grounded  in  Christian  character,  will 
be  "living  epistles"  ever  teaching  concerning  their  new  life-power 
which  makes  for  righteousness.  All  the  larger  denominations, 
upon  entering  Japan,  estabUshed  schools  of  one  kind  or  the  other. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  year  1908,  the  following  Christian  schools 
were  maintained  in  Japan: 

Protestant : 

12  Boys'  Boarding  Schools,  haA-ing 3,604  students. 

45  Girls'  Boarding  Schools,  having 5,526  students. 

93  Day  Schools  (including  Kindergartens),  hav- 
ing       7,920  students. 

22  Theological  Seminaries,  having 367  students. 

14  Women's  Bible  Training  Schools,  having.  . .  .     247  students. 

Total 17,664  students. 

Roman  Catholic  (1903). 

5  Boys'  Boarding  Schools,  having 1,278  students. 

12  Girls'  Boarding  Schools,  having 606  students. 

30  Day  Schools  (including  Kindergarten) ,  hav- 
ing    4,244  students. 

4  Theological  Seminaries,  having 55  students. 

Total  6,183  students. 

Greek  Catholic  (1903) : 

1  Boys'  School,  having 78  students. 

1  Girls'  School,  having 83  students. 

1  Theological  Seminary,  having 167  students. 

Total  328  students. 

The  above  statistics  include  only  those  schools  which  are  largely 
supported  by  the  different  missions,  and  do  not  include  those 
private  schools  conducted  by  Christian  Japanese  men  and  women. 
At  least  25,000  Japanese  persons  are  to-day  being  educated  in 
Christian  schools.  Of  course,  not  nearly  all  of  the  students  in 
these  schools  become  baptized  Christians,  but  hardly  any  of 
them  leave  school  without  imbibing  some  of  the  most  important 
Christian  principles  of  life.     No  one  who  has  seen  them  will  denj^ 


34  Christianity  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan 

the  educative  and  moral  power  of  the  Christian  schools.  But  it 
was  a  rough  road  over  which  these  mission  schools  had  to  travel. 
Whenever  a  wave  of  anti-foreign  influence  passed  over  Japan — 
and  these  waves  were  rolUng  rather  continually  for  six  or  eight 
years  immediately  previous  to  the  abolition  of  extra-territoriality 
— the  number  of  students  and  the  popularity  of  these  schools 
would  decidedly  wane.  But  the  intense  desire  of  a  large  majority 
of  Japanese  students  to  learn  English,  and  the  fact  that  the 
mission  schools  could  teach  EngUsh  very  much  more  satisfac- 
torily than  the  government  schools  could,  has,  on  several  occa- 
sions, saved  the  Christian  schools  from  still  more  serious  defec- 
tion. To  add  to  the  trouble,  there  were  missionaries  on  the 
field  who  could  not  feel  satisfied  until  they  had  given  to  their 
students'  Christianity  a  decidedly  American  tinge.  This  ele- 
ment of  foreignizing  has  almost  always  been  bitterly  resented 
by  public  opinion.  But,  happily,  it  seems  that  this  genus  of 
missionary  is  slowly  dying  out. 

Though  the  new  treaties  abolishing  extra-territoriality  M^ent 
into  effect  in  1899,  it  was  not  until  1904  that  Christian  schools 
were  granted  the  same  privileges  as  the  Government  schools  of 
the  same  grade.  Since  then  all  their  students  can  have  military 
conscription  postponed,  and  can  enter  any  examination  or  higher 
institution  on  the  same  conditions  as  those  in  the  Government 
schools. 

The  Christian  schools  in  Japan  now  include  Kindergartens, 
primarj^  schools,  special  schools  and  theological  seminaries. 
There  is  as  yet  no  Christian  school  in  Japan  of  university  grade. 
Christian  kindergartens  are  the  only  ones  that  can  carry  out 
Froebel's  ideas.  If  you  take  Christianity  out  of  Froebel's  sys- 
tem, the  backbone  of  it  is  gone.  At  present,  the  Christian  Kinder- 
garten has  become  very  popular.  From  everywhere  comes  the 
report:  "We  cannot  possibly  take  all  the  children  who  apply 
for  entrance.  We  have  to  keep  a  waiting  list."  The  demand 
seems  to  be  far  in  excess  of  the  supply  of  these  institutions,  i 

Most  of  the  educational  work  is  of  the  secondary  grade,  and 

'  Christian  Movement  (1908),  p.  295. 


The  Second  Coming  of  Christianity  35 

the  age  of  the  boys  and  girls  is  from  fourteen  to  twenty — the  age 
of  adolescence — an  age  as  impressionable  as  it  is  important. 

Christian  education  in  Japan  has  been  criticised  as  being  un- 
scientific, narrow  and  one-sided,  as  instilling  moral  notions  not 
in  accord  with  Japanese  moral  instincts,  as  having  for  its  end 
propagandism  rather  than  pure  education.  But  one  of  the 
largest  Christian  Middle  Schools  in  the  empire  reports  that  two- 
sevenths  of  its  graduates  become  ministers,  two-sevenths  teach- 
ers, and  three-sevenths  business  men.  This  would  seem  to 
show  a  prettj^  fair  result. 

The  fact  that  in  consequence  of  the  foreigners  teaching  Eng- 
hsh  in  the  Christian  schools  a  relatively  large  percentage  of  the 
Christian  graduates  become  teachers  of  EngUsh  in  Government 
Middle  Schools,  gives  Christian  schools  an  immense  field  of  in- 
fluence. In  1904,  there  were  ninety  such  teachers  who  were 
graduated  from  one  Christian  school.  Moreover,  the  Y.  M.  C.  A. 
of  the  United  States  is  supplying  Christian  young  men  to  teach 
English  in  the  Government  Middle  Schools.  There  are  now  some 
twenty-five  such  men  teaching  in  the  middle  and  higher  schools 
of  Japan.  These  men  are  not  missionaries  in  the  strictest  sense 
of  the  term,  but  they  have  a  powerful  influence  over  the  students 
and  others.  I  once  saw  2,000  students,  teachers  and  other 
people,  at  a  railroad  station  to  say  a  parting  word  to  one  of  these 
young  Americans  who  was  to  return  to  his  home-land.  In  his 
house  he  had  taught  the  Bible  to  all  who  wished  to  be  taught  it, 
and  crowds  came  to  hear  him. 

Because  now  the  Christian  schools  are  given  the  same  privileges 
as  government  schools,  many  more  students  stay  to  the  end  of 
the  course,  and  this  gives  them  more  time  to  allow  the  new  faith 
to  become  a  real  part  of  themselves.  But  the  strongest  argument 
that  continues  to  be  advanced  against  these  schools  is  that  they 
are  largely  "foreign"  schools.  Most  of  the  Christian  secondary 
schools,  however,  are  now  controlled  by  a  board  of  directors  half 
foreign  and  half  Japanese,  i 

1  The  Rev.  M.  Uemura,  editor  of  the  Fukuin  Shimpo,  in  an  address,  said: 
"There  is,  no  doubt,  much  room  for  criticism  of  mission  schools,  but  it  is  not 


36  Christianity  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan 

There  are  several  points  that  stand  in  the  way  of  real  success 
of  the  mission  schools.  While  most  of  them  have  good  buildings, 
many  of  them  do  not  have  enough  campus,  and  none  has  an 
adequate  equipment  of  apparatus  to  teach  science  properly. 
The  idea  is  still  held  by  some  that  it  is  the  only  business  of  a  mis- 
sion school  to  make  converts,  instead  of  making  really  educated 
men  who  are  righteous  and  spirit-filled,  and  know  how  to  Uve 
completely. 

Christian  education  has  thus  far  almost  altogether  steered  clear 
of  establishing  industrial  and  technical  schools,  and  yet  this 
might  be  a  very  fruitful  field  for  building  up  the  Japanese  nation 
with  men  of  sterling  character.  A  high  official  in  the  Japanese 
Department  of  Education  recently  spoke  of  Christian  schools 
to  this  effect:  "The  trouble  is  they  are  just  flooding  the  market 
with  more  literary  trained  youth  who  can't  do  anything  in  par- 
ticular well.  We  have  too  many  such  already.  Let  the  Christian 
schools  turn  their  attention  to  technical  lines,  and  they  will  com- 
mand our  grateful  support."  The  Christian  school,  however, 
does  not  primarily  exist  to  provide  technically-trained  men  for 
Japan,  but  to  give  the  spirit  of  Christ  to  its  students,  no  matter 
what  their  line  of  study.  This  could  very  well  be  done  by  means 
of  industrial  education — perhaps  more  successfully  than  by 
means  of  classical  learning. 


to  be  denied  that  a  considerable  part,  perhaps  seven  or  eight-tenths  of  our 
converts  at  present,  have  been  under  their  influence."  Dr.  Schneder,  of 
Sendai,  said:  "I  should  say  that  if  it  had  not  been  for  Christian  schools  (non- 
theological)  the  progress  of  Christianity  thus  far  made  would  not  be  more 
than  half  as  great.  One  has  to  go  not  by  converts  alone,  but  by  the  progress 
of  sentiment  and  moral  ideas  in  the  direction  of  Christianity."  Christian 
Movement,  1904,  p.  31. 

The  Rev.  Mr.  Ebina  (1906)  is  reported  to  have  said  that  since  government 
and  non-Christian  private  schools  had  begun  to  open  their  gates  to  Christian- 
ity, the  distinctively  Christian  schools  were  no  longer  necessary.  But  it 
is  doubtful  whether  Christianity  has  had  so  remarkable  an  influence  on  the 
other  schools  as  to  have  made  its  own  schools  useless;  but  "it  is  true  that  the 
schools  which  at  one  time  openly  opposed  Christianity  have  begun  to  show 
some  degree  of  friendliness,  and  occasionally  they  do  invite  well-known 
Christian  men  to  address  the  pupils."      Japan  Evangelist,  1906,  p.  40. 


The  Second  Coming  of  Christianity  37 

Female  Education  and  Christianity. — The  first  Christian 
boarding  school  for  girls  was  opened  in  1875,  though  day  schools 
had  been  conducted  for  years  previous.  There  are  now  fifty- 
eight  girls'  boarding  schools  in  the  empire,  with  an  attendance  of 
6,500.  Through  these  schools  the  Christian  home  is  being  thor- 
oughly established.  But  the  government  itself  has  been  mightily 
influenced  by  the  example  of  mission  schools  for  girls.  A  high 
official,  in  an  address  delivered  at  a  Christian  girls'  school  in 
Sendai,  said:  "You  missionary  ladies  have  done  a  vastly  greater 
work  for  Japan  than  you  ever  dreamed  of.  Our  government  had 
no  hope  of  success  in  estabHshing  girls'  schools  until  we  were 
inspired  by  your  successes.  You  have  been  to  us  as  timely  rein- 
forcements to  a  discouraged  army,  and  without  your  example 
there  would  now  be  no  growing  system  of  higher  education." 
Count  Okuma  more  than  once  said:  "It  is  useless  to  work  with 
the  male  sex  as  a  single  standard.  Japan,  by  raising  woman  to 
her  proper  place,  should  provide  herself  with  a  double  standard."! 

The  only  Japanese  university  for  women  was  founded  by  Mr. 
Naruse,  who  is  still  the  worthy  president,  and  had  he  not  been  a 
devoted  and  faithful  Christian,  the  idea  of  the  higher  education 
of  the  women  of  his  own  land  would  probably  never  have  entered 
his  mind.  Nor  is  President  Naruse  the  only  Japanese  Christian 
who  has  felt  called  upon  to  establish  institutions  of  learning  for 
the  young  women  of  his  country.  There  are  quite  a  number  of 
such  schools  conducted  and  supported  by  companies  of  Christian 
men  and  women.  The  best  way  to  prove  whether  an  institution 
is  really  influential  or  not  is  to  see  whether  or  not  the  Japanese 
themselves  begin  to  establish  it. 

Of  Miss  Tsuda's  English  School  in  Tokyo,  Dr.  DeForest  says: 
"There  are  many  excellent  schools  for  the  education  of  girls  in 
Japan.  The  educational  department  is  very  much  in  earnest  in 
developing  government  schools  for  girls.  There  are  many  finely 
equipped  missionary  schools  for  the  higher  education  of  girls. 
But  Miss  Tsuda's  differs  from  them  all  in  being  the  only  one  that 


1  DeForest,  Sunrise  in  the  Sunrise  Kingdom,  p.  130. 


38  Christianity  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan 

is  Christian,  yet  interdenominational,  that  is,  Japanese,  yet 
international."  It  is  the  highest  grade  English  Christian  school 
for  girls  in  Japan.  Beginning  with  1909,  the  graduates  of  its 
normal  department  will  receive  government  licenses  to  teach  in 
secondary  schools  without  further  examination. 

The  services  of  the  graduates  of  the  Christian  girls'  schools  are 
always  in  demand,  not  only  in  so-called  Christian  work,  but  especi- 
ally as  teachers  in  all  kinds  of  schools.  Their  modern  methods  of 
teaching,  their  knowledge  of  English,  and  their  noble  character, 
no  doubt,  account  for  their  acceptability  as  teachers. 

The  demand  for  woman's  education  far  exceeds  the  provision 
made  for  it  by  the  government,  and  this  in  itself  would  give 
the  mission  schools  a  raison  d'etre,  aside  from  the  main  purpose 
for  which  these  institutions  were  established.  But  it  is  a  fact  of 
serious  importance  that  the  Christian  girls'  schools  are  not  yet 
adjusted  to  the  general  scheme  of  education  in  Japan,  and  this 
has  been  a  standing  complaint  against  them  on  the  part  of  those 
who  oppose  Christianity,  and  even  of  some  who  are  favorable 
to  the  new  religion. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  some  missionaries  think  that  they  must 
always  Americanize  while  they  are  trying  to  Christianize.  This 
is  a  course  which  is  as  unwise  as  it  is  narrow,  whether  it  is  con- 
sidered from  the  standpoint  of  education,  or  that  of  propagand- 
ism.  It  is  this  shortsightedness  of  method  that  partly  accounts 
for  the  relative  loss  of  prestige  which  the  mission  schools  are 
experiencing.  The  government  itself  is  now  making  it  possible 
for  the  Christian  girls'  schools  to  regain  their  former  position,  by 
inducing  them  to  conform  in  general  to  the  plan  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Education. 

In  April,  1907,  a  regulation  was  issued,  to  take  effect  in  1909, 
according  to  which  graduates  of  schools  not  recognized  by  the 
Department  of  Education  are  practically  excluded  from  the 
examinations  for  teachers'  license. 

To  be  recognized  by  the  government,  a  mission  school  is  (1) 
to  follow  a  curriculum  similar  to  the  one  prescribed  by  the  De- 
partment, for  girls'  high  schools.     (The  Bible  and  special  English 


The  Second  Coming  of  Christianity  39 

etc.,  can  be  retained  in  the  curriculum  of  a  private  school.)  (2) 
At  least  half  of  the  teachers  must  hold  government  licenses.  (3) 
Sufficient  ground  for  athletic  purposes,  adecjuate  scientific  appa- 
ratus, buildings,  etc.  These  conditions  do  not  show  any  discrimi- 
nation, nor  are  they  otherwise  objectionable,  and  ought  to  be  met 
at  once  by  the  mission  schools.  By  adopting  this  course,  the 
educational  standard  of  these  schools  would  be  decidedly  raised. 
Moreover,  if  the  mission  schools  do  not  accept  this  regulation, 
one  of  their  main  levers  for  moving  Japanese  society  Christ-w^ard 
— that  of  providing  Enghsh  teachers  for  the  government  schools — 
will  be  taken  away.  For,  as  stated  above,  only  those  can  obtain 
licenses  who  are  graduates  of  a  school  recognized  by  the  govern- 
ment. Two  Christian  schools  have  already  adopted  the  plan 
suggested  by  the  Department,  and  are  now  enjoying  all  the 
privileges  of  the  government  institutions. 

Dr.  Motoda,  in  the  Kirisutokyo  Shuho,  makes  the  following 
statement:  "There  are  three  ways  in  which  mission  schools  for 
girls  can  survive  the  present  crisis:  First,  they  may  become 
regular  Koto  Jo  Gakko  (girls'  high  schools)  with  all  government 
privileges.  This  plan  excludes  the  Bible  from  the  school  cur- 
riculum but  leaves  a  wide  margin  in  which  to  give  religious  edu- 
cation, and  we  must  remember  that  the  best  results  cannot  be 
obtained  by  forcing  religion  upon  students.  Second,  they  may 
take  concerted  actiori  to  equip  themselves  according  to  the 
requirements  for  Koto  Jo  Gakko  and  then  secure  privileges,  just 
as  many  mission  Chugakko  (middle  schools  for  boys)  have  secured 
government  privileges.  Third,  if  neither  of  the  above  plans  be 
feasible,  mission  schools  would  better  discontinue  the  work  of 
general  education,  and  confine  their  attention  to  the  courses  of 
study  for  which  they  are  especially  c^ualified,  such  as,  spe?ial 
courses  in  English,  Western  Household  Economy,  Foreign  Music 
and  similar  subjects." 

The  Fine  Arts. — In  connection  with  general  education,  refer- 
ence might  be  made  to  art  and  the  relation  of  Christianity  to  it 
in  Japanese  civihzation.  So  far  as  sculpture  is  concerned,  the 
influence,  I  believe,  has  been  purely  negative.     To  the  popular 


40  Christianity  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan 

mind,  sculpture  is  dangerously  close  in  its  relation  to  idolatry, 
and  as  contact  with  Christianity  and  the  West  has  made  the 
worship  of  images  exceedingly  odious  among  those  who  might 
take  up  the  study  of  sculpture,  hardly  any  attempt  has  been 
made  to  produce  works  of  the  scupltor's  art  even  for  purposes 
other  than  that  of  worship.  The  modern  Japanese  with  any 
artistic  ability  does  not  wish  to  be  classed  with  the  persons  who 
make  the  crude  stone  images  of  animals  that  are  placed  in  front 
of  Buddhist  temples. 

In  painting,  also,  the  influence  of  the  West  has  been  more 
destructive  than  constructive.  The  matchless  delicacy  and  beauty 
of  the  native  paintings,  so  highly  prized  by  Europeans  and 
Americans  and  so  little  understood  by  them,  has  suffered  by 
the  contact.  Art  for  its  own  sake  has  quite  frequently  been 
changed  into  art  for  gain.  In  painting,  however,  a  few  attempts 
have  been  made  by  Japanese  artists  at  reproducing  some  of  the 
Christian  masterpieces.  Along  other  hues  also  some  notable 
success  has  been  achieved  in  the  fields  of  European  art. 

In  music,  Christianity  has  had  a  very  decided  influence  for 
good.  The  native  music  is  quite  undeveloped.  It  has  not 
reached  a  higher  stage  than  that  represented  b}^  the  minor  key 
and  singing  in  unison.  The  idea  of  harmony  was  totally  absent. 
Christianity  has  found  it  exceedingly  difficult  to  introduce  into 
hymn-singing  the  idea  of  harmony.  It  seemed  altogether  strange 
to  the  Japanese  mind  that  four  or  more  voices  should  sing  to- 
gether and  each  one  have  different  notes.  Surely  only  one  can 
be  right.  But  to-day,  perhaps,  nine-tenths  of  all  the  Western 
singing  that  is  heard  in  Japan  consists  of  Christian  hymns,  or 
in  the  using  of  these  tunes  with  secular  words.  It  sounds  rather 
strange  to  an  American  to  hear  an  ordinary  street-song  sung  to 
the  tune  of  "There  is  a  fountain  filled  with  blood,"  or  "There  is 
a  happy  land,  far,  far  away," 

The  organ  is  very  much  used  in  Japan,  and  the  introduction  of 
this  instrument  was  also  due,  in  the  first  place,  to  Christianity. 
The  Japanese  now  have  their  own  organ  and  piano  factories. 


The  Second  Coming  of  Christianity  41 

Other  Western  musical  instruments  that  have  found  favor  in 
Japan  are  the  vioUn  and  the  horn.  The  Japanese  reaUze  that 
music  is  not  one  of  their  special  endowments,  but  the  patience 
and  the  earnestness  Mdth  which  they  work  at  this  ornament  of 
civiUzation  is  much  to  be  admired. 


CHAPTER  III 

INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  LITERATURE,  MORALS,  AND 
RELIGIONS  OF  JAPAN 

Christian   Books   and   Papers.       The  Popular   Novel.        Language. 
Morals.    Position  of  Woman.      Marriage  and  Divorce.     Con- 
cubinage.   Social  Evil.     Suicide.    Imperial  Rescript. 
School  Ethics.     Home  Ethics.     Religions. 
Buddhist  Reforms. 

Literature. — In  a  land  where  only  forty  years  ago  no  news- 
paper existed,  and  now  1,000  publications  are  to  be  found,  the 
printed  page  is  of  immense  importance..  The  missionaries  and 
the  Japanese  Christians  have  from  the  beginning  made  profitable 
use  of  the  pen  as  a  means  of  influencing  Japanese  society,  a  large 
part  of  which  is  highly  intelligent. 

In  1906,  the  Christian  periodicals  consisted  of  one  that  was 
published  three  times  a  year,  two  bi-monthlies,  thirty-four 
monthlies,  nine  semi-monthlies,  five  weeklies  and  three  were 
reported  as  published  "occasionally."  The  price  of  these  pub- 
lications ranges  from  4  sen  to  yen  2.75  a  year. 

Two  or  three  of  the  Tokyo  daily  papers  are  owned  and  edited 
by  active  Christians.  Undoubtedly,  the  moral  tone  of  the  Japan- 
ese press  has  been  appreciably  raised  through  the  influence  of 
Christianity.  Christian  professors  in  the  universities,  statesmen 
and  members  of  the  Imperial  Diet  have  written  books,  rich  in 
ethical  instruction  and  strong  in  loyalty  to  Christ. i 

The  Bible  is  to  be  found  in  every  city,  town  and  village.  It  is 
to  be  had  not  only  in  Christian  book-stores,  but  is  sold  also  by 
non-Christian  dealers.  That  there  is  a  great  demand  for  Bibles 
is  shown  by  the  fact  that  in  1906  the  American  and  British  Bible 
Societies  of  Japan  circulated  12,700  whole  Bibles,  96,136  New 


1  Griffis,  Dux  Christus,  p.  275. 

42 


Influence  on  Literature,  Morals  and  Religions  43 

Testaments,  and  184,895  Gospels  and  other  portions  of  the 
Bible.  Only  a  small  proportion  of  the  output  was  given  away, 
the  rest  were  regularly  sold.  The  number  of  tracts  circulated 
during  the  same  year  was  322,444. 

Lives  of  Christ  and  of  Paul  are  about  as  numerous  and  as  varied 
in  form  in  Japanese  as  they  are  in  English.  A  very  comprehen- 
sive and  favorable  life  of  Christ  was  written  by  a  non-Christian, 
who  is  a  graduate  of  the  Imperial  University  at  Tokyo,  and 
holds  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Literature.  Commentaries  on  the 
Bible,  translations  of  the  principal  works  on  theology,  books  on 
devotion  and  biographies  of  Christian  heroes  are  without  number. 
This  last  form  of  literature  seems  to  appeal  especially  to  the 
Japanese  readers.  Recently,  Mr.  Tsuchii  Bansui  has  translated 
into  Japanese  Milton's  ''Paradise  Lost." 

The  fact  that  almost  all  the  Japanese  Christian  workers  can 
read  English,  and  do  read  it,  manifestly  works  against  the  speedy 
rise  of  a  good  national  Christian  literature.  The  English  language 
still  is  the  channel  through  which  Christian  ideas  flow  into  Japan, 
to  mould  the  thoughts  of  the  educated,  i 

Frequently  one  finds  in  secular  books  and  periodicals  passages 
taken  from  the  Bible,  without  the  use  of  quotation  marks  or  any 
hint  as  to  the  source  of  the  language.  The  writer  is  quite  willing 
that  his  readers  should  think  him  the  author  of  such  passages. 
Unwittingly,  such  writers  pay  a  high  compliment  to  the  Chris- 
tian Scriptures. 

Ten  years  ago  (1899),  W.  G.  Aston,  in  his  well-known  "History 
of  Japanese  Literature,"  could  truthfully  say  that  Christianity 
had  still  to  put  its  stamp  on  the  literature  of  the  Tok^^o  period; 
but  on  the  next  page  he  assumes  the  role  of  a  prophet  and  says: 
"Can  it  be  imagined  that  when  a  religion  is  presented  to  them 
(Japanese)  v^^hich  alone  is  adapted  to  satisfy  far  more  completely 
all  the  cravings  of  their  higher  nature,  the  Japanese,  with  their 
eminently  receptive  minds,  will  fail  in  time  to  recognize  its  im 
mense    superiority?     They    have    already    accepted    European 


Tokyo  Missionary  Conference,  1900,  p.  452. 


44  Christianity  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan 

philosophy  and  science.  It  is  simply  inconceivable  that  the 
Christian  religion  should  not  follow.  Probably,  as  was  the  case 
with  Buddhism,  it  will  not  be  received  without  some  modifica- 
tion."! 

The  popular  novel  is  always  a  good  mechanism  to  register  the 
social  temperature  of  a  people.  It  is  quite  natural  that  Christi- 
anity should  first  show  its  influence  on  this  form  of  literature. 
This  seems  to  be  the  case  in  Japan.  During  the  last  fifteen  years 
the  Japanese  novel  has  undergone  a  total  transformation. 2  Not 
only  have  the  characters  been  changed,  but  the  language  and  the 
ideals  presented  have  also  been  greatly  altered.  The  modern 
novelists  have  all  learned  from  Christianity  the  meaning  of  the 
word  sin.  The  Japanese  language  uses  the  word  tsumi  for  both 
sin  and  crime,  and  the  novels  of  former  decades  described  crime 
only.  The  deeper  meaning  of  sin,  as  hatred,  pride,  selfishness, 
meanness  of  disposition,  was  unexpressed  by  them. 

Another  word  that  has  been  given  an  altogether  new  content 
is  the  word  ai  (love).  This  word  was  used  almost  exclusively 
in  an  impure  sense.  Even  to-day,  if  a  Christian  preacher  uses 
this  word  in  a  country  place,  where  the  people  do  not  yet  know 
the  Christian  meaning  of  it,  the  audience  often  laughs,  thinking 
that  the  speaker  is  relating  somie  impure  joke.  But  in  books, 
and  among  the  intelligent  people,  love  has  come  to  mean  the 
same  as  it  does  in  Christian  literature  all  over  the  world. 

The  word  kenshin-gisei  (self-sacrifice)  formerly  was  quite 
unintelligible  unless  explained.  Now  it  is  used  in  pulpit  and 
literature  and  is  not  only  understood  readily,  but  appeals  especi- 
ally to  the  knightly  spirit  of  the  people.  The  Japanese  people 
possessed  the  content  of  the  word,  but  did  not  express  it  in  the 
way  it  is  now  expressed.  Jinkaku  (personality)  is  another  term 
that  is  quite  common  to-day.     In  this  case,  Christianity  intro- 

1  Aston,  History  of  Japanese  Literature,  p.  399. 

2  Says  Dr.  Nitobe,  professor  ia  the  Kyoto  Imperial  University,  "That 
people  in  general  believe  that  Christianity  is  the  best  former  of  character  is 
evidenced  by  the  fact  that  so  many  of  the  characters  in  popular  novels  and 
dramas  are  Christian." 


Influence  on  Literature,  Morals  and  Religions  45 

duced  the  word  and  the  content.  Meishin  (superstition)  is 
another  term,  the  meaning  of  which  is  new  to  the  people,  but 
is  now  frequently  heard  in  public  and  seen  in  print.  On  literature 
in  general,  Christianity  has  not  yet  had  much  influence,  but  it  is 
equally  true  that  its  stamp  is  slowly  becoming  visible  in  many 
of  the  present-day  literary  productions. 

Morals. — As  yet,  the  basis  of  Japan's  morality  is  not  the  Chris- 
tian religion,  though  many  individuals  are  guided  by  its  precepts. 
The  morals  of  a  nation  cannot  be  entirely  revolutionized  in  the 
short  space  of  forty  years,  even  though  that  nation  should  greatly 
desire  such  a  change.  In  Japan,  where  for  over  two  thousand 
years  the  morality  of  authority — loyalty  and  filial  obedience, 
or  ancestor-worship — has  had  absolute  sway  and  has  indeed 
preserved  the  nation  during  that  long  period,  an  instantaneous 
change  is  simply  impossible.  The  one  question  that  is  ever 
asked  by  all  Japanese  when  confronted  by  some  new  institution 
is,  Will  it  be  for  the  glory  of  the  Emperor  and  waga  kuni  (our 
country)?     This  is  the  one  and  only  test  of  everything. 

But  Japan  has  entirely  changed  her  material  civihzation,  and 
new  ideas  and  strange  ideals  are  in  evidence  everywhere.  The 
individual  who  formerly  was  owned  and  restrained  by  family 
and  community,  now  speaks  about  personal  rights,  and  the 
courts  of  the  land,  within  limits,  recognize  such  rights.  The  old 
social  organization  is  undergoing  disintegration,  and  the  newer 
form  has  not  yet  been  firmly  established.  The  natural  conse- 
quence is  that  Japanese  society  is  in  a  moral  chaos,  though  this 
disturbance  does  not  yet  reach  to  all  parts  of  the  national  life. 
But  it  is  true,  no  doubt,  that  the  morals  in  many  directions  are 
lower  to-day  than  they  were  a  hundred  years  ago.  This  is  the 
plaintive  strain  which  one  continually  hears  from  the  Japanese 
press,  and  from  government  officials,  such  as  the  Minister  of 
Education  and  others.  They  must  not  forget  that  morals  cannot 
be  bought  ready-made,  and  that  thus  far  no  set  of  customs  suited 
to  the  new  order  of  things  has  been  crystalUzed  into  a  binding 
code  of  morality.  The  adjustment  to  the  new  environment  has  not 
yet  been  fully  made.     Right  here  lies  the  great  opportunity  for 


46  Christianity  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan 

Christianity.  The  basic  ideals  underlying  Western  civiHzation 
are  Christian  in  character,  and  as,  in  a  material  way,  Japan  has 
largely  been  Westernized,  Christianity  would  seem  to  be  the  most 
suitable  religion  to  go  with  the  new  conditions.  The  fact  hat 
the  morals  in  Japan  are  lower  now  than  they  were  before  the 
recent  advent  of  Christianity,  is  not  an  argument  against  the 
power  of  Christianity.  The  probability  is  that  if  Christianity 
had  not  lent  a  saving  hand  by  pouring  oil  on  the  troubled  waters, 
Japan  would  be  in  a  much  more  helpless  moral  chaos  than  she 
now  is. 

The  question  of  the  position  of  woman,  and  the  relation  be- 
tween the  sexes  in  general,  are  phases  in  the  social  problem  that 
have  been  largely  modified  through  the  influence  of  Christianit}^ 
and  the  West.  It  ought  to  be  stated  that  woman  in  Japan  always 
has  held  a  higher  position  than  is  the  case  in  the  other  Asiatic 
countries,  but  she  has  never  been  considered  the  equal  of  man, 
and  perhaps  nine-tenths  of  the  Japanses  men  to-day  do  not  think 
that  woman  constitutes  the  "better  half."i 

Confucianism  and  ancestor-worship  have  given  woman  the  low 
position  which  she  formerly  occupied  in  Japan  and  elsewhere. 
Mencius  says:  "There  are  three  things  which  are  unfilial,  and 
to  have  no  posterity  is  the  greatest  of  them."  The  one  and 
only  object  of  marriage  was  the  perpetuation  of  worship. 2 

There  simply  must  be  posterity.  To  allow  a  family  to  die  out 
would  be  the  "unpardonable  sin,"  and  a  crime  against  the  state. 
The  people  of  the  West  cannot  fully  realize  the  awe  and  power 
which  this    ancient   faith;  possesses.      And  yet   we   can   under- 


1  Mr.  Okakura,  who,  if  I  mistake  not,  is  not  a  Christian,  says  in  the  Century 
Magazine:  "The  Western  attitude  of  profound  respect  toward  the  gentler 
sex  exhibits  a  beautiful  phase  of  refinement  which  we  are  anxious  to  emulate. 
It  is  one  of  the  noblest  messages  that  Christianity  has  given  us.  To-day  we 
are  convinced  that  the  elevation  of  womaii  is  the  elevation  of  the  race.  Since 
the  restoration  we  have  not  only  confirmed  the  equality  of  sex  in  law,  but 
have  adopted  that  attitude  of  respect  which  the  West  pays  to  woman." — 
Century  Magazine,  Vol.  47,  p.  633. 

2  Nobushige  Hozumi,  Ancestor-worship  and  Japanese  Law. 


Influence  on  Literature,  Morals  and  Religions  47 

stand  that  if  we  truly  believed  that  our  own  happiness,  as  well 
as  the  happiness  of  our  ancestral  shades,  depended  on  the  wor- 
ship of  our  ancestors,  we  should  not  like  to  shoulder  the  responsi- 
bility of  letting  a  family  line  die  out.  That  would  mean  that  the 
shades  of  generations  upon  generations  of  ancestors  would  for- 
ever have  to  go  unworshipped — suspended  somehow  and  some- 
where in  eternity,  perhaps  to  be  tbe  laughing-stock  of  other 
more  favored  shades;  or  what  is  more  likely,  they  might  en- 
deavor to  wreak  vengeance  on  a  land  whose  morals  have  fallen 
so  low  as  to  allow  actual  "race-suicide."  But  to  make  it  abso- 
lutely certain  that  there  will  be  posterity,  woman  cannot  be 
independent.  Marriage  laws  must  be  loose,  for  it  must  be  easy 
to  divorce  a  sterile  wife  so  as  to  take  one  that  is  not  sterile. 
Concubines  from  this  standpoint  may  become  necessary;  and 
resource  must  be  had  to  the  universal  custom  of  adoption.  Wed- 
lock, divorce  and  re-marriage,  concubinage  and  adoption  were 
the  bulwarks  which  protected  the  ghosts  of  the  ancestors  from 
the  disgrace  of  being  unworshipped.  Woman,  then,  is  a  begetter 
of  worshippers — and  be  it  said  to  the  honor  of  the  Asiatic  woman, 
that  she  did  not  consider  herself  a  slave,  but  found  the  highest 
possible  glory  in  this  religious  function,  the  giving  of  birth  to 
sons;  and  if  not  sons,  then  daughters. 

But  when  a  low  estimate  is  put  on  woman,  chastity  also  is  given 
a  low  value.  Formerly,  a  large  part  of  the  public  would  have 
blamed  the  daughter  of  poor,  old  parents,  whose  suffering  she 
could  have  relieved  by  selling  herself  to  a  brothel-keeper,  if  she 
had  refused  to  do  so.  Frequentl}',  chastity  was  placed  below  the 
virtue  of  fihal  obedience.  Nor  has  this  practice  altogether  died 
out  to-day.  During  the  famine  of  1905,  many  girls  who  had 
been  sold  by  the  suffering  parents  were  redeemed  by  the  Chris- 
tians. 

It  is  certainly  true  that  public  sentiment  has  greatly  changed 
in  this  respect,  and  that  the  number  of  people  who  would  in  ex- 
treme circumstances  favor  the  selling  of  Vv'oman's  virtue  is  com- 
paratively small  in  Japan  to-day.  The  laws  of  Japan  in  this 
respect  have  also  been  greatly  changed.     But  even  to-day  pros- 


48  Christianity  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan 

titution  can  very  largely  rely  upon  this  distoHed  religious  prin- 
ciple to  secure  for  it  the  required  number  of  girls. 

To  get  an  idea  of  the  change  that  has  taken  place  in  the  matter 
of  divorce,  a  comparison  of  the  former  standards  with  those  now 
in  vogue  is  necessary. 

The  Taiho  Code  enumerated  seven  reasons  for  divorce  for  the 
husband,  none  for  the  wif^.  These  seven  reasons  were,  sterility, 
adultery,  disobedience  to  father-in-law  or  mother-in-law,  garrul- 
ity, theft,  jealousy  and  leprosy.  Sterility  did  not  mean  actual 
barrenness,  but  the  failure  of  male  issue,  and  as  to  adultery,  "it 
was  not  the  immorality  of  the  act  itself,  but  rather  the  appre- 
hended danger  of  the  confusion  of  blood  that  was  feared."  i 

The  present  code  specifies  bigamy,  adultery,  desertion,  cruelty, 
condemnation  to  punishment  for  certain  offences  as  forgery,  theft, 
embezzlement,  sexual  immorality  and  desertion  as  the  principal 
grounds  of  divorce.  Divorce  may  be  effected  by  mutual  con- 
sent of  the  husband  and  wife.  To  make  this  "agreement  to  dis- 
agree" legal,  it  must  be  reported  to  the  public  registrar.  In  a 
case  where  mutual  consent  cannot  be  obtained,  application  for 
divorce  can  be  made  to  the  courts  of  law.  2 

Several  years  ago  some  Christian  members  of  the  Diet  intro- 
duced a  bill  proposing  to  make  marital  unfaithfulness  on  the 
part  of  the  husband,  as  well  as  in  the  case  of  the  wife,  cause  for 
the  divorce,  but  the  bill  failed  to  pass.  However,  the  pubHc 
agitation  of  the  question  no  doubt  did  some  good. 3 


^  Hozumi,  Ancestor-worship  and  Japanese  Laiv. 

2  "But  here  it  appears  that  the  rights  of  the  woman  do  not  receive  the  same 
recognition  as  those  of  the  man.  Thus,  although  adultery  committed  by 
the  wife  constitutes  a  valid  ground  for  divorce,  we  do  not  find  that  adultery 
on  the  husband's  part  furnishes  a  plea  to  the  wife." — Gulick,  Evolution  of  the 
Japanese,  p.  265. 

3  See  Bibliothecn  Sacra,  January,  1905 

Mr.  Gubbins,  who  translated  into  English  the  new  codes,  says,  in  his  intro- 
duction: "In  no  respect  has  modern  progress  in  Japan  made  greater  strides 
than  in  the  improvement  of  the  position  of  woman.  Though  she  still  labors 
under  certain  disabilities,  a  woman    can  now  become  the  head  of  a  family, 


Influence  on  Literature,  Morals  and  Religions  49 

Japan  has  learned  from  Christianity  that  monogamy  is  the 
highest  and  purest  form  of  hfe,  and  a  number  of  Christian  writers 
have,  with  much  exultation,  referred  to  the  fact  that  the  Crown 
Prince  was  publicly  wedded — and  the  pledges  were  mutual — and 
that  he  lives  in  strictest  monogamy.  They  believe  that  the 
present  emperor  will  be  the  last  to  have  concubines.  The  wed- 
ding ceremony  of  the  Crown  Prince  was  the  first  of  its  kind  in 
the  2,600  years  of  Japanese  history.  Such  an  example  by  the 
highest  in  the  land  will  surely  have  much  influence. 

How  fully  Japan  recognizes  monogamy  as  one  of  the  clearest 
and  most  benevolent  lessons  that  Christianity  teaches,  could 
be  seen  when  a  few  years  ago  some  Mormons  came  to  the  country 
to  do  missionary  work.  All  the  principal  newspapers  opposed 
the  movement  and  only  after  the  Mormons  had  fully  promised 
not  to  teach  polygamy  was  permission  granted  them  to  do 
evangelistic  work. 

Statistical  figures  show  thp.t  the  marriage  i elation  is  coming 
to  be  much  more  lasting  than  formerly. 

Marriages.  Divorces. 

1892 349,489  133,498 

1895 365,633  110,838 

.  1897 395,207  124,075 

From  1896  to  1900  there  weie  371,295  marriages  and  only 
76,621  divorces,  a  reduction  in  the  latter  of  about  25  per  cent. 
Formerly,  one  out  of  three  mai.iages  was  divorced;  at  present, 
one  out  of  five  is  divorced.! 

In  Japan  about  one  out  of  every  ten  children  is  illegitimate. 2 
This  percentage  of  illegitimacy  is  very  large,  but  it  is  partly 
accounted  for  by  the  loose  marriage  laws  that  prevail.     The  mar- 

and  exercise  authority  as  such;  she  can  inherit  and  own  property  and  manage 
it  herself;  if  single,  or  a  widow,  she  can  adopt;  she  is  one  of  the  parties  to 
adoption  effected  by  her  husband,  her  consent  is  necessary  to  the  adoption 
of  her  child  by  another  person ;  she  can  act  as  guardian,  or  curator,  and  she 
has  a  voice  in  family  councils." 

1  Japan  Evangelist,  July,  1908,  p.  263. 

2  Gulick,  Evolution  of  the  Japayiese,  p.  267. 


50  Christianity  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan 

riage  ceremony  itself  is  neither  religious  nor  civil,  but  purely- 
social.  It  consists  of  alternate  drinking  of  sake  (rice-wine)  by 
the  contracting  parties,  in  the  presence  of  their  friends.  To 
legalize  such  a  marriage,  it  must  be  reported  to  the  public  regis- 
trar. But  among  the  lower  classes  this  registration  is  considered 
optional  and  many  do  not  register  at  all.  Consequently,  their 
children,  from  a  legal  standpoint,  are  illegitimate,  though  socially 
they  are  not  considered  as  such.  The  peculiar  law  of  primogeni- 
ture is  one  reason  why  some  do  not  wish  to  register  their  mar- 
riage. Perhaps  both  the  man  and  the  woman  of  such  a  union 
may  be  the  oldest  of  their  respective  families,  and  in  this  case, 
neither  would  be  wilhng  to  change  the  name,  as  registering 
requires.  This  is  another  product  of  ancestor-worship.  But 
many  simply  live  together — dokiju — and  do  not  take  the  trouble 
to  register.  Moreover,  it  is  a  great  deal  easier  to  dissolve  the 
partnership  if  the  marriage  is  not  recorded. 

Concubinage,  as  such,  has  been  on  the  decline  since  the  Re- 
storation. Public  opinion  disapproves  of  it,  and  according  to 
the  new  Civil  Code,  children  of  concubines  are  prevented  from 
inheriting  the  family  name  or  property,  where  there  are  legiti- 
mate children.  1  But  geisha  (dancing  girls,  practically  on  a  level 
with  harlots),  and  prostitutes  have  enormously  increased  in  New 
Japan.  The  system  of  segregation  and  licensing  is  in  vogue  in 
this  country,  and  it  is  claimed  by  those  who  have  made  investiga- 
tions along  the  line  of  legalized  prostitution,  that  the  enormous 
increase  in  this  evil  business  is  in  large  part  due  to  the  licensing 
of  the  institution.  But  be  that  as  it  may,  "free  cessation,"  as 
we  have  seen  before,  was  directly  brought  about  by  the  Christians 
in  Japan.  The  results  of  free  cessation  can  be  seen  from  the  fact 
that  the  increase  in  the  number  of  prostitutes  from  1896  to  1899 
was  from  39,000  to  52,400,  an  increase  of  one-third.  Had  the 
same  rate  of  increase  continued,  there  would  have  been  eighty  to 
eighty-five  thousand  in  1907.  But  in  1902,  two  years  after  free 
cessation  was  begun,  the  number  had  fallen  to  38,600.     Thus, 


Murphy,  Social  Evil  in  Japan. 


Influence  on  Literature,  Morals  and  Religions  51 

about  12,000  girls  left  the  dens  of  shame  as  the  result  of  free  cessa- 
tion. The  amount  of  money  spent  per  person  also  showed  a  great 
reduction,  and  a  decrease  in  the  guests  of  the  better  classes  is 
also  noticed.  The  character  of  the  prostitutes  has  changed  for 
the  worse,  as  the  better  class  gladly  took  advantage  of  free 
cessation.  Since  1902,  a  slow  increase  has  again  taken  place, 
though  the  figures  are  still  lower  than  they  v/ere  before  the  agita- 
tion, and  much  lower  than  they  would  have  been  had  there  been 
no  movement  at  all. 

Christianity  struck  a  telling  blow  at  this  great  evil  of  Japanese 
society,  and  everybody  in  Japan,  high  or  low,  knows  exactly 
what  Christianity  stands  for  on  this  point.  In  making  this  fight 
for  the  freedom  of  the  enslaved  women,  some  Salvation  Army 
officers  were  brutally  wounded  by  the  brothel-keepers  and  their 
associates,  so  that  some  were  obliged  to  be  in  the  hospital  for 
weeks;  but  this  merely  helped  so  much  the  more  to  arouse  the 
sentiment  of  the  better  people  against  this  institution  of  shame. 
As  a  rule,  people  who  patronize  these  houses  now  go  in  closed 
jinrikisha,  formerly  they  visited  them  openly,  i 

It  is  claimed  that  since  these  new  regulations  are  in  force  the 
brothel-keepers  are  often  imposed  upon  by  wicked  and  designing 
parents,  who  sell  their  daughters  with  the  intention  of  taking 
them  back  again  in  a  short  time.  There  are  such  cases  on 
record,  but  the  law  does  not  permit  such  girls  to  enter  any  other 
brothel.  They  can,  however,  return  to  the  place  which  they 
left  at  the  first. 

It  is  a  notable  fact  that  a  larger  proportion  of  the  prostitutes 
of  Japan  are  reclaimable  than  is  the  case  in  Western  countries, 
where  "prodigal  sons"  sometimes  return,  but  prodigal  daughters 
hardly  ever.  Drinking  is  not  so  closely  associated  with  prostitu- 
tion in  Japan  as  it  is  in  America,  and  in  some  cases  at  least,  the 
motive  for  entering  the  brothels — filial  piety — is  higher  than  it 
is  in  the  West. 

Suicide. — It  is  often  said  that  among  the  civiUzed  nations 


1  U.  G.  Murphy,  The  Social  Evil  in  Japan  and  Allied  Subjects,  190S. 


52  Christianity  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan. 

Japan  has  a  very  high  percentage  of  suicides.  About  175  per 
railHon  of  the  population  take  their  hves  annually,  and  the 
number  would  seem  to  be  growing.  In  England,  the  number  is 
about  seventy-five  per  miUion,  One  reason  why  self-destruction 
is  so  common  in  Japan  is  the  fact  that,  according  to  former  codes 
of  honor,  suicide  removed  all  disgrace  from  the  victim  and  from 
his  family.  Courage  and  bravery,  it  is  believed,  could  not  be 
expressed  more  realistically  than  by  deliberate  suicide.  To 
eradicate  this  ancient  notion,  the  present  government  has  been 
quite  active,  but  with  no  great  success. 

A  few  years  ago  a  graduate  of  the  Imperial  University  jumped 
into  the  crater  of  Aso,  an  active  volcano.  His  pocket-book, 
which  was  found  near  the  edge,  contained  a  farewell  letter,  which 
began  thus:  "How  mistaken  are  those  who  say  that  suicide 
betrays  weakness  of  will.  The  strongest  will  is  his  who  goes 
down  to  a  death  that  makes  man  shudder  even  to  hear  of."  It 
has  become  a  common  practice  among  students  to  jump  into  the 
craters  of  volcanoes  or  to  throw  themselves  down  high  water- 
falls. A  certain  aimlessness  and  hopelessness  seems  to  be  abroad. 
"Where  is  hope  to  be  found?  Where  may  peace  be  sought?" 
exclaims'  the  student  referred  to  above.  It  is  a  marked  fact  that 
among  Japanese  Christians  suicide  is  practically  unknown. 

The  biothels  constitute  the  best  soil  for  producing  suicides. 
According  to  Mr.  Murphy,  previous  to  the  free  cessation  and  the 
change  in  the  police  regulations  in  1900,  the  average  monthly 
suicides  among  the  public  prostitutes  numbered  between  forty 
and  fifty,  and  during  the  two  months  immediately  after  the 
change,  not  one  suicide  took  place  among  all  the  pubhc  prostitutes 
in  the  country. 

Necessarily,  it  will  take  a  long  time  for  Christianity  to  affect, 
very  materially,  the  number  of  suicides  in  the  country  at  large. 
For,  except  in  very  special  cases,  such  as  that  of  the  prostitutes, 
Christianity  can  in  this  matter  affect  only  those  who  have  per- 
sonal faith  in  the  Christian  religion. 

Morals  in  Education. — On  November  31,  1890,  the  Imperial 
Edict  of  moral  education  was  issued.     Of  this  document,  Dr. 


Influence  on  Literature,  Morals  and  Religions  53 

Gulick  says:  "This  is  supposed  to  be  the  distilled  essence  of 
Shinto  and  Confucian  teaching.  It  is  to-day  the  only  authori- 
tative teaching  given  in  the  public  schools."  The  edict  reads 
as  follows: 

We  consider  that  the  Founder  of  Our  Empire  and  the  ancestors  of  Our 
Imperial  House  placed  the  foundation  of  the  country  on  a  grand  and  perma- 
nent basis,  and  established  their  authority  on  the  principles  of  profound  hu- 
manity and  benevolence. 

That  Our  subjects  have  throughout  ages  deserved  well  of  the  state  by  their 
loyalty  and  piety,  and  by  their  harmonious  co-operation,  is  in  accordance 
with  the  essential  character  of  Our  nation;  and  on  these  very  same  principles 
Our  education  has  been  founded. 

You,  Our  subjects,  be  therefore  filial  to  your  parents;  be  affectionate  to 
your  brothers;  be  harmonious  as  husbands  and  wives;  and  be  faithful  to 
your  friends;  conduct  yourselves  with  propriety  and  carefulness;  extend 
generosity  and  benevolence  toward  your  neighbors;  attend  to  your  studies 
and  follow  your  pursuits;  cultivate  your  intellects  and  elevate  your  morals; 
advance  public  benefits  and  promote  social  interests;  be  always  found  in  the 
good  observance  of  the  laws  and  constitution  of  the  land;  display  your  per- 
sonal courage  and  pubUc  spirit  for  the  sake  of  the  country  whenever  re- 
quired; and  thus  support  the  Imperial  prerogative,  which  is  co-existent  with 
the  Heavens  and  the  Earth. 

Such  conduct  on  your  part  will  not  only  strengthen  the  character  of  Our 
good  and  loyal  subjects,  but  conduce  also  to  the  maintenance  of  the  fame  of 
your  worthy  forefathers. 

Tliis  is  the  instruction  bequeathed  by  Our  ancestors  and  to  be  followed  by 
Our  subjects;  for  it  is  the  truth  which  has  guided  and  guides  them  in  their 
own  affairs  and  their  dealings  toward  aliens. 

We  hope,  therefore,  that  We  and  Our  subjects  will  regard  these  sacred 
precepts  with  one  and  the  same  heart  in  order  to  attain  the  same  ends. 

But  fifteen  years  have  produced  a  great  change  in  the  moral 
ideals  that  are  thought  proper  to  hold  before  Japanese  youth. 
It  has  been  noted  by  Christians  and  non-Christians  that  the 
teachings  in  the  new  Kokutei  Shushin  Kyokwasho  (Text-books 
on  National  Ethics)  are  approaching  Christian  ideals.  Even  Dr. 
Hiroyuki  Kato,  who  is  so  stern  an  opponent  to  Christianit}^,  says 
that  in  connection  with  loyalty  and  patriotism,  independence 
and  self-defense  should  be  taught.  He  points  out  that  in  Eng- 
land there  is  great  pubUc  spirit  along  side  of  high  development 


54  Christianity  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan 

of  individual  character,  and  that  Japan  cannot  do  better  than 
follow  in  her  footsteps.  The  compilers  of  the  new  text-books 
on  ethics,  of  whom  Dr.  Kato  was  one,  are  strongly  of  the  opinion 
that  the  altered  circumstances  of  the  country  demand  that  Japan 
should  add  some  new  elements  to  the  moral  training  she  gives  to 
her  young  people.  For  these  elements  the  compilers  have  come 
to  Christendom  and  Christianity. 

The  old  ethics  carefully  defined  the  duties  of  inferiors  to  su- 
periors, but  said  little  about  the  duties  of  superiors  to  inferiors. 
"Individualism  as  a  principle  is  not  included  in  the  old  system. 
These  text-books  would  serve  the  purpose  of  Christians  and 
Buddhists  alike,  insisting  as  they  do  on  all  the  most  fundamental 
principles  of  morality."  i 

The  aim  of  the  text-books  is  to  produce  "a,  good  Japanese," 
i.  e.,  a  moral  individual  as  differentiated  from  the  traditional 
Japanese  idea  of  "a  good  citizen."  The  state  has  recognized 
the  necessity  of  greater  moral  individualism,  and  in  consequence 
of  this  has  issued  the  new  text-books.  In  so  doing,  Japan  is 
necessarily  adopting  principles  that  resemble  in  form  the  highest 
Christianity.  2 

One  chapter  is  entitled  "Yoki  Nihonjin"  (a  good  Japanese). 
"A  good  Japanese  is  a  man  who  strives  to  fulfill  all  the  duties  of 
a  subject.  As  a  citizen,  he  bears  in  mind  all  that  a  citizen  ought 
to  bear  in  mind.  *  *  *  The  members  of  his  household  and  others 
he  must  treat  in  a  proper  manner.  A  good  Japanese  must  be 
upright  and  a  man  who  shows  steady  industry  in  his  business 
and  who  exercises  ingenuity  in  order  to  improve  his  methods  of 
business."  Other  subjects  are:  Ancestors,  Society,  How  to 
Treat  Other  Persons,  Other  Persons'  Property,  Other  Persons' 
Reputation,  Gratitude,  Contracts  or  Agreements,  Kind  Treatment 
to  Foreigners.  3  The  following  are  a  few  of  the  instructions  given 
under  the  last-named  subject: 


1  Japan  Evangelist,  1905,  p.  233  f. 

2  Japan  Gazette,  in  Japan  Evangelist,  July,  1907. 

3  Japan  Mail,  1905. 


Influence  on  Literature,  Morals  and  Religion  55 

Never  call  after  foreigners  passing  along  the  streets  or  roads. 

When  foreigners  make  inquiries,  answer  them  politely.  If  you  are  unable 
to  make  them  understand,  inform  the  police  of  the  fact. 

Since  all  human  beings  are  brothers  and  sisters,  there  is  no  reason  for  fear- 
ing foreigners.  Treat  them  as  equals  and  act  uprightly  in  all  your  dealings 
with  them.     Be  neither  servile  nor  arrogant. 

Beware  of  combining  agamst  the  foreigner  and  dislildng  liim  because  he 
is  a  foreigner;  men  are  to  be  judged  by  their  conduct  and  not  by  their 
nationality. 

As  intercourse  with  foreigners  becomes  closer  and  extends  over  a  series  of 
years,  there  is  danger  that  many  Japanese  may  become  enamored  of  their 
ways  and  customs  and  forsake  the  good  old  customs  of  their  forefathers. 
Against  this  danger  you  must  be  on  your  guard. 

Taldng  off  your  hat  is  the  proper  way  to  salute  a  foreigner.  The  bending 
of  the  body  low  is  not  to  be  commended. 

Hold  in  high  regard  the  worship  of  ancestors  and  treat  your  relations  with 
warm  cordiality,  but  do  not  regard  a  person  as  your  enemy  because  he  or  she 
is  a  Christian. 

The  students  of  Japan  are  most  easily  reached  with  moral 
teaching,  and  as  a  class,  they  need  moral  food  most.  Much 
concerned  on  account  of  the  immorality  among  the  students  of 
the  country,  Mr.  Makino,  Minister  of  Education,  in  1906,  issued 
an  instruction  in  which  he  says:  "Among  the  youth  of  both 
sexes  I  detect,  to  my  regret,  a  tendency  to  occasional  despondency 
and  to  ethical  decadence."  He  found  that  luxury,  dissipation, 
shamelessness  were  rife  among  the  students,  and  that  indecent 
pubUcations  and  pictures  were  freely  circulated.  Indirectly,  the 
Minister's  instruction  is  a  confession  that  the  principles  of  morals 
as  formerly  taught  in  the  schools  are  inadequate,  and  he  earnestly 
seeks  a  cure.  Repressive  measures  have  been  tried,  but  these  have 
not  answered. 

Professor  F.  Matsumoto  finds  six  different  causes  for  the  immor- 
ality and  the  hammon  (mental  unrest)  so  prevalent  among  present- 
day  students:  (1)  A  political  cause,  in  the  total  change  in  the 
system  of  government  at  the  Restoration.  (2)  A  social  cause, 
in  that  the  difference  between  the  rich  and  poor  is  constantly 
becoming  greater.  (3)  A  moral  cause,  in  the  confusion  caused 
by  the  different  moral  systems  taught.  (4)  A  religious  cause, 
in    the   inadequacy   of   the    old    religions.     (5)  An    educational 


56  Christianity  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan 

cause,  in  that  true  teachers  are  very  few.  (6)  An  intellectual 
cause,  in  the  constant  and  rapid  changes  in  all  departments  of 
thought. 

There  is  indeed  moral  and  mental  unrest  in  student  society. 
Old  restraints  have  been  ruthlessly  torn  down,  and  new  moral 
forces  cannot  be  erected  in  a  day.  The  present  condition  is  a 
necessary  and  unavoidable  step  in  the  evolution  of  a  new  moral 
order.  It  must  be  said  for  the  students,  that  many  of  them  are 
eagerly  seeking  some  firm  moral  foundation  on  which  to  stand. 
A  disproportionately  large  number  of  students  are  found  among 
the  members  of  the  churches.  Most  of  these  can  read  English. 
"This  means  the  inflow  of  Christian  ideas  and  interests.  There 
is  quite  a  general  assent  to  Christian  ethical  standards  among 
those  who  are  not  yet  members  of  churches,  but  this  assent  has 
not  yet  been  lifted  to  a  distinctly  religious  plane,  which  alone 
can  make  it  vital  and  permanent  and  controlling."! 

Dr.  Tetsujiro  Inoue  thinks  the  morality  that  will  be  produced 
by  the  general  revolution  of  society  will  be  a  compound  of  Orient 
and  Occident,  of  patriarchism  and  individuahsm.  He  doubts 
not  the  possibility  of  such  an  outcome  as  he  has  seen  the  blending 
going  on  before  his  eyes.  "The  firm  resolution  of  Christianity 
which  faces  death  without  fear  is  like  that  of  Bushido.  It  is, 
therefore,  not  impossible  to  harmonize  Christianity  and  Bushido.'"^ 

The  picture  which  Japanese  moralists  draw  is,  as  a  rule,  rather 
gloomy,  but  light  is  appearing  on  the  scene,  and  no  one  will  deny 
that  some  of  its  most  powerful  rays  are  coming  from  the  West- 
ern horizon.  Even  in  business  morality  a  change  for  the  better 
is  taking  place.  3 

The  home  has  been  greatly  purified;  the  individual  now  has 
real  rights;  woman  has  made  wonderful  advancement  in  every 


1  E.  Kashiwai  and  T.  Komatsu,  in  Japan  Evangelist,  December,  1907,  p.  428. 

2  Dr.  Tetsujiro  Inoue,  "Ethics  and  Education,"  in  Japan  Mail,  1908. 

3  A  missionary  who  is  not  too  pro-Japanese,  has  said:  "Tliat  the  Japan- 
ese are  improving  in  commercial  morality  is  true,  and  a  thing  to  rejoice  over. 
I  doubt  not  that  in  general,  truth  telling  is  somewhat  more  popular  than  it 
was  about  forty  years  ago." 


Influence  on  Literature,  Morals  and  Religions  57 

way,  and  the  presence  of  the  missionaries  has  broken  down  much 
of  the  former  race  prejudice  on  the  part  of  the  Japanese.  I  once 
heard  a  Japanese  minister  remark,  in  a  sermon  on  the  great  change 
which  had  taken  place  in  the  matter  of  race  hatred.  When 
Christian  missionaries  first  came  to  Japan,  he  said,  they  were 
called  Yaban  (barbarian),  then  Aka-hige  (red  beard),  then  Yaso 
(a  corruption  of  Jesus),  after  that  Ijin  (a  foreigner),  then  Seiyojin 
(a  Westerner),  and  now  they  are  called  Beikokujin  (Americans). 
He  thought  this  showed  remarkable  progress  towards  Christianity. 

The  coming  of  Christianity  to  Japan,  some  forty  years  ago, 
created  such  an  excitement  throughout  the  land  that  the  decadent 
old  religions  were  shocked  out  of  their  slumbers.  The  Christi- 
anity that  was  then  preached  was  intensely  warlike  and  icono- 
clastic. In  many  cases  it  endeavored  first  to  break  down  the 
ancient  reUgious  institutions,  because  these,  it  was  believed,  were 
the  devil's  strongholds;  and  then  it  hoped  to  build  the  kingdom 
of  God  on  the  general  debris.  It  is  easily  seen  that  any  method 
of  religious  propagandism  so  largely  antagonistic — and  so  unwise, 
as  many  now  believe — carried  on  by  "hated"  foreigners,  would 
arouse  intense  opposition.  In  the  early  days  this  opposition 
among  the  Buddhists  often  expressed  itself  in  volleys  of  stones 
hurled  at  the  churches  or  the  houses  of  Christians.  PubUc  meet- 
ings were  held  at  which  Japanese  Christians  were  branded  as 
"traitors  who  wished  to  deliver  their  country  into  the  hands  of 
foreigners."  It  is  said  that  one  priest  went  about  the  country 
preaching  against  the  use  of  kerosene,  because  it  was  a  foreign 
product.  1 

But  contact  with  Christianity  brought  Buddhism  to  realize  its 
own  weakened  condition,  and  soon  imitation  of  Christian  institu- 
tions and  methods  was  substituted  for  physical  opposition.  As 
a  consequence,  a  reform  movement  was  organized  among  the 
younger  element  of  Buddhism,  which  had  as  its  aim  the  adjust- 
ment of  an  old  faith  to  present  needs.  2 


1  Carj%  Japan  and  Its  Regeneration,  p.  92. 

2  Lafcadio  Heam  somewhat  unsympathetically  says,  "A  result  of  mission- 
ary efforts,  much  more  significant  than  the  indispensable  yearly  reports  of 


58  Christianity  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan 

It  is  no  doubt  true  that  morally  and  educationally,  the  standard 
of  the  priests  has  been  immensely  improved,  because  of  contact 
with  Christianity.  Moreover,  Christianity  has  given  them  new 
methods  of  work.  Preaching,  among  the  Buddhists  has  become 
very  common,  and  the  teachings  given  are  often  identical  with 
those  of  Christianity.  Literal  quotations  from  the  New  Testa- 
ment have  been  used  by  priests,  the  source  of  the  doctrine,  of 
course,  being  left  unmentioned. 

There  are  Buddhist  Sunday-schools,  Y.  M.  B.  A.'s  (Young 
Men's  Buddhist  Associations),  Buddhist  schools  for  women, 
orphanages,  temperance  societies  and  many  other  organizations 
for  charity.  The  Buddhist  sacred  book  is  carefully  bound  with 
"divinity  edges,"  and  in  shape  and  size  is  very  much  like  an 
ordinary  copy  of  the  Bible. 

Thus  Buddhism  has  learned,  to  some  extent  at  least,  to  fight 
with  Christianity's  weapons,  and  has  again  become  somewhat  of 
a  missionary  religion.  Missionary  stations  have  been  opened 
not  only  in  Japan,  but  also  in  Korea,  Shanghai,  Amoy,  Hawaiian 
Islands  and  even  in  San  Francisco.  At  the  last-named  place  a 
periodical  is  published  called  "The  Light  of  Dharma."  The 
Eastern  Asia  Buddhist  Society  has  been  formed  for  propagating 
the  doctrines  of  Buddhism,  both  at  home  and  abroad.  The  Im- 
perial Eastern  Association  has  for  its  object  the  translation  into 
Japanese  of  Thibetan,  Mongolian  and  Manchurian  Buddhist 
Scriptures.  1 

But  there  is  also  another  tendency  noticeable  among  the  ad- 
herents of  the  old  religions.  The  limitations  of  Buddhism  are 
glaringly  brought  out  by  the  more  active  and  energetic  faith  of 
the  West.     Many  have  become  members  of  the  Christian  Church, 


new  conversions,  has  been  the  reorganization  of  the  native  religions,  and  a 
recent  government  mandate  insisting  upon  the  higher  education  of  the  native 
priesthoods.  Indeed,  long  before  this  mandate,  the  wealthier  sects  had 
established  Buddhists  schools  on  the  Western  plans;  and  the  Shinshu  sect 
could  already  boast  of  its  scholars  educated  in  Paris  or  at  Oxford — men  whose 
names  are  known  to  Sanscritists  the  world  over." — Hearn,  Kokoro,  p.  193. 
1  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  January,  1905,  p.  1  f. 


Influence  on  Literature,  Morals  and  Religions  59 

while  more  have  become  theists,  and  still  others  say  that  Budd- 
hism is  not  a  religion,  but  a  system  of  philosophy.  Not  long  ago, 
a  Buddhist  priest,  at  a  funeral,  told  his  hearers  that  Buddhism 
was  fit  for  this  world  only,  and  that  if  they  wanted  real  consola- 
tion, they  should  go  to  Christianity  for  it,  for  that  was  the  only 
religion  from  which  it  could  be  derived/  A  few  years  ago,  a 
priest  brought  his  daughter  to  the  Christian  school  with  which 
I  was  connected  at  the  time.  When  asked  w^hy  he  had  decided 
to  send  his  daughter  to  a  Christian  school  and  not  to  a  Buddhist 
one,  he  replied  that  Buddhism  was  good  enough  for  an  old  man 
like  him,  but  it  was  not  good  enough  for  his  daughter. 

Perhaps  this  Buddhist  dissatisfaction  is  most  authoritatively 
stated  by  Dr.  Senjo  Murakami,  one  of  the  learned  priests  of  to- 
day, in  an  address  delivered  at  a  large  Buddhist  gathering,  held 
in  Tokyo  in  April,  1905.  He  said:  ''You  may  be  proud  of  the 
thousands  of  Buddhist  temples  here  in  Tokyo,  but  what  are  they? 
They  are  the  temples  where  dead  men  gather.  There  is  not  a 
single  temple  where  really  Hving  men  could  come  to  hsten  to  the 
teaching  of  Buddha  and  to  cultivate  their  mind.  When  I  see 
that  Christianity  owns  everywhere  in  Tokyo  large  church  edi- 
fices for  men  of  action  to  come  to,  I  feel  so  ashamed  that  I  know 
not  what  to  do.'"  These  words,  coming  from  the  highest  author- 
ity, plainly  show  that,  though  there  is  a  reform  movement  on 
foot  among  some  sects  of  Buddhism,  there  is  a  very  sad  lack  in 
the  ancient  faith  of  Uving  religious  power.  The  same  is  even 
more  true  of  Shintoism,  which  has  been  officially  dropped  from 
the  rank  of  a  religion. 


Japan  Evangelist,  October,  1908,  p.  375. 
Japanese  Evangelist,  December,  1905,  p.  415. 


CHAPTER  IV 

INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY  ON  PHILANTHROPIC  AND 
SOCIAL  WORK  IN  JAPAN 

Paternalism.  Extra-Ecclesiastic  Christianity.  Public  Charity. 
Salvation  Army.  Peace  Movement.  Temperance  Work.  Red  Cross 
Society.  Orphanages.  Prisoners  and  Released  Prisoners.  Re- 
formatory Work.  Lepers.  Medical  Missions.  Young  Men's  Chris- 
tian Associations. 

In  old  Japan,  paternalism  was  the  keynote  to  the  whole  struc- 
ture of  society.  The  head  of  the  family  was  responsible  for  all 
that  belonged  to  his  circle;  the  head  of  the  village,  for  all  his 
villagers,  and  the  lord  of  the  manor  felt  responsible  for  all  his 
subjects.  Under  this  regime,  if  carried  out  strictly,  "sweet 
charity"  had  hardly  a  place.  Strict  paternalism,  however,  cares 
only  for  its  own  group,  i.  e.,  its  charity  begins  at  home  and  ends 
there.  It  cares  not  how  people  fare  across  the  line.  But  even 
this  rather  narrow  philanthropy  was  instrumental  in  doing  great 
good  in  a  country  where  famines  and  fires,  tidal  waves  and  earth- 
quakes are  of  so  frequent  occurrence. 

In  one  respect,  paternalistic  charity  has  a  great  advantage 
over  the  charity  of  the  West.  It  knows  how  to  prevent  pauper- 
ism. This,  of  course,  is  the  most  scientific  charity.  In  the  West, 
through  the  influence  of  Mediaeval  theology  and  a  narrow  inter- 
pretation of  passages  like  "the  poor  ye  have  always  with  you," 
indiscriminate  encouragement  of  the  beggar  was  supposed  to 
secure  a  pass  to  heaven  on  the  part  of  him  who  bestowed  this 
so-called  charity.  With  this  erroneous  idea  Japan  never  had  to 
contend,  hence  her  notable  progress  along  the  line  of  preventing 
poverty.  But  Christianity  always  has  had  a  broad  view  of 
charity — all  men  have  souls  and  all  men  are  brothers.     This 

60 


61  Influence  on  Philanthropic  and  Social  Work 

spirit  of  Christian  love  is  transfused  through  the  whole  social 
fabric  of  Europe  and  America,  and  this  is  what  Japan  also  needs, 
and  she  is  fast  learning  it  from  the  West;  so  fast  that  after  the 
San  Francisco  earthquake  $240,000  were  sent  by  Japan  to  the 
suffering  people  there.  It  is  no  credit  to  America  that  San 
Francisco,  a  few  months  later,  saw  fit  to  make  a  desperate  effort 
to  drive  all  the  Japanese  children  out  of  her  public  schools. 

A  clear  idea  of  how  much  Japan  has  received  from  the  West 
can  be  obtained  by  thinking  of  these  influences  under  the  head- 
ings of  (1)  Western  civilization,  (2)  extra-ecclesiastic  Christi- 
anity, and  (3)  Church-Christianity.  As  for  the  civihzation  of 
the  West,  Japan  long  ago  decided  to  take  the  whole  of  it,  and 
she  is  adapting,  and  in  some  instances,  improving  on  these  in- 
stitutions. Her  constitutional  monarchy,  her  educational  sys- 
tem, her  medicine,  her  railroads,  her  postal,  telegraph  and  tele- 
phone systems,  her  army  and  navy,  are  directly  modeled  after 
those  of  the  West.  No  proof  that  this  is  a  fact  is  needed.  Japan 
has  simply  done  what  it  is  natural  for  anyone  to  do — first,  sought 
self-preservation  and  self-development  in  a  material  sense. 
Bread,  and  what  is  necessary  for  physical  life,  come  first  on  the 
menu  of  nations,  as  well  as  of  individuals.  But  with  civilization 
per  se,  I  am  not  concerned  in  the  present  treatise,  i 

Japan,  however,  is  also  fast  accepting  what  has  been  called  extra- 
Church  Christianity.  By  this  is  meant  large-hearted  philan- 
thropy, benevolence  and  charity.  It  must  never  be  forgotten 
that  one  reason  why  the  Japanese  have  been  such  apt  learners 
in  this  line  is  because  they  have  been  prepared  for  it  by  Buddh- 
ism through  its  doctrine  of  kindness.  Nor  am  I  assuming  that 
Christianity  is  the  only  power  in  the  West  that  makes  for  char- 
ity. The  Jews,  per  capita,  no  doubt,  give  as  much  or  more  for 
charity  as  the  Christians  do,  but  they  have  never  yet  offered  to 


1  Personally,  I  firmly  believe  that  Christianity  has  had  an  immense 
influence  on  the  progress  of  the  material  civilization  of  the  West.  But 
as  it  is  impossible  to  designate  definitely  where,  and  how  much,  this  influence 
is,  I  shall  drop  this  factor  out  of  my  estimate  of  the  influence  of  Christianity 
in  Japan. 


62  Christianity  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan 

Japan  the  religion  upon  which  they  base  their  charity.  What 
Japan  has  learned  in  her  own  country  about  Western  philan- 
thropy was  taught  her  by  Christianity  alone. 

Whether  Japan  has  to  any  great  extent  accepted  Church- 
Christianity  or  not,  will  be  answered  in  the  next  chapter.  At 
present  let  us  see  what  forms  Christian  charity  is  taking  in 
Japan,  and  try  to  estimate  its  influence  on  society  in  general. 
Before  describing  the  private  eleemosynary  institutions,  it 
should  be  stated  that  the  government,  in  1899,  enacted  Relief 
Regulations,  by  which  it  is  provided  that  each  prefecture  "should 
create,  for  the  purpose  of  giving  relief  when  any  calamity  over- 
takes the  whole  or  any  part  of  its  territory,  a  Relief  Fund,  with  a 
minimum  limit  of  yen  560,000,  the  central  government  under- 
taking to  hand  over  every  year  for  ten  years  an  amount  propor- 
tioned to  sums  locally  raised  for  this  fund."  The  entire  fund 
now  amounts  to  over  thirty-two  million  yen,  and  disburses  about 
100,000  yen  annually.  The  state  also  cares  for  19,000  paupers 
and  about  2,300  foundhngs,  at  a  yearly  cost  of  nearly  250,000 
yen.  Most  of  the  larger  cities  and  also  the  several  prefectures 
conduct  very  successfully  various  kinds  of  charitable  institu- 
tions.! 

The  following  is  a  bare  outline  of  the  social  work  which  Christi- 
anity is  doing  in  Japan : 

Salvation  Army. — This  world-renowned  organization  has 
forty  corps  and  outposts  throughout  Japan,  its  headquarters 
being  Tokyo.  Much  direct  evangelistic  work  is  done,  but  the 
Army  is,  of  course,  best  known  for  its  charitable  and  social 
institutions.  A  Seamen's  Home  and  a  Salvation  Army  Hotel 
are  being  conducted  in  Yokohama.  Women's  Rescue  Work  is 
also  being  carried  on.  One  of  these  rescue  homes  is  in  Azabu, 
Tokyo;  another  one  at  Dalny,  through  which  217  women  passed 
during  the  year,  and  19  are  now  there.  Another  of  these  homes 
was  conducted  at  Hakodate,  but  it  was  destroyed  by  fire  some 
time  ago.     A  Cheap  Food  Depot  is  situated  in  the  poor  district 


!  Christian  Movement,  1908,  p.  84. 


Influence  on  Philanthropic  and  Social  Work  63 

of  Tokyo,  and  a  cheap  lodging  house  at  the  same  place.  Their 
Labor  Bureau  has  secured  employment  for  an  unnumbered  host 
of  men.  The  Army's  sphere  of  usefulness  is  being  enlarged  by 
the  estabhshment  of  a  Student's  Institute,  a  Home  for  Dis- 
charged Prisoners,  a  Nurses'  Training  Home  and  a  free  Dispens- 
ary. 

The  ardor  and  the  patience  with  which  the  workers  of  the 
Salvation  Army  have  entered  their  service,  has  been  of  great 
influence  on  Japanese  society.  Whenever  a  calamity  occurs, 
wherever  sin  is  the  vilest,  and  where  poverty  is  most  abject,  there 
the  Army  is  the  most  active.  They  usually  begin  their  remedial 
work  on  the  socially  sick  after  other  doctors  have  given  up  the 
case.  In  some  of  the  slum  districts,  the  only  name  that  the 
poor  people  know  for  Christianity  is  Salvation  Army.  A  few 
years  ago,  when  General  Booth  visited  Japan,  I  saw  25000 
people  at  a  railroad  station  waiting  to  welcome  the  aged  "sol- 
dier." On  April  20,  1907,  he  was  received  in  audience  by  His 
Imperial  Majesty,  the  emperor,  who  was  exceedingly  gracious 
and  expressed  great  sympathy  with  the  "General's"  objects  and 
work. 

Peace  Movement. — While  this  movement  is  by  no  means 
limited  to  the  Japanese  and  foreign  Christians,  they  are,  never- 
theless, very  active  members  of  the  society.  Count  Itagaki  said, 
"As  a  citizen  of  a  Far  Eastern  Empire,  my  thoughts  are  always 
clinging  to  the  problems  of  international  peace." 

The  Society  publishes  a  monthly  periodical,  Heiwa  (Peace),  of 
which  Mr.  T.  Oyama,  of  the  Mainichi  Shimbun,  is  the  editor, 
with  Mr.  Gilbert  Bowles,  of  the  Friends'  Mission,  in  charge  of  the 
English  department. 

Peace  Sunday  is  being  recognized  by  Buddhists  and  Christians 
alike;  branch  societies  are  being  organized  and  literature  in  the 
cause  of  peace  is  circulated.  Japan  knows  perfectly  well  that 
her  social,  commercial  and  industrial  development  and  well- 
being  depend  on  her  peaceful  relations  with  the  rest  of  the  world, 
and  the  remarkable  gro\\i;h  of  the  ideas  of  peace  is  proof  that  she 
has  learned  to  hate  war.     At  this  juncture,  the  spirit  of  modem 


64  Christianity  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan 

Christianity  has  had  a  remarkable  opportunity  to  influence  the 
Ufe  of  Japan. 

Temperance  Work. — In  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Yoko- 
hama, about  the  year  1875,  the  first  temperance  society  in  mod- 
ern Japan  was  organized.  Buddhists  and  others,  however,  a 
thousand  years  ago,  tried  to  propagate  temperance  principles; 
but  only  with  the  coming  of  Christianity  was  an  organized  at- 
tempt made  on  the  part  of  the  people.  At  present  the  total 
number  of  societies  is  111,  with  an  active  membership  of  8,500. 
Hon.  Taro  Ando  is  the  president  of  the  National  Temperance 
League.  Recently  "the  members  of  the  League  submitted  a 
petition  to  the  Minister  of  Education  requesting  him  to  exhort 
the  principals  and  teachers  of  the  public  schools  (Middle)  to  pro- 
hibit drinking  and  smoking.  To  this  the  authorities  promptly 
attended  and  ordered  all  the  middle  schools  in  Japan,  through 
the  governors,  to  produce  reports  respecting  the  smoking  and 
drinking  of  the  teachers."  i  The  world-wide  tide  of  temperance 
has  also  touched  the  shores  of  Japan,  and  already  has  made 
some  impression  on  the  people  in  general. 

Red  Cross  Society. — The  Red  Cross  Society  of  Japan,  with 
over  1,200,000  members,  cannot  strictly  be  called  a  Christian 
institution,  because  the  great  majority  of  its  supporters  are  not 
adherents  of  Christianity.  It  is  a  powerful,  semi-public,  benevo- 
lent organization,  founded  in  1877  as  an  independent  organiza- 
tion; but  in  1887,  after  revising  its  regulations  and  taking  the 
name  of  "Red  Cross  Society  of  Japan,"  it  was  officially  recog- 
nized by  the  International  Red  Cross  Society.  It  is  the  ready 
and  very  able  dispenser  of  public  and  private  charity  for  the 
country,  and  has  done  untold  good  in  time  of  peace  and  -w&t. 
Professor  Clement  says  of  this  organization:  "With  Christian 
principles  as  a  foundation,  a  Christian  name  and  a  Christian 
emblem  for  a  banner,  it  must  be  recognized  as  a  Christian  insti- 
tution." 2 

Orphanages. — Orphanages   are   institutions   for   which   it    is 

1  Christian  Movement,  1908,  p.  306. 

2  Christianity  in  Modern  Japan,  p.  136. 


Influence  on  Philanthropic  and  Social  Work  65 

comparatively  easy  to  secure  funds.  Everywhere  the  suffering 
of  the  fatherless  and  motherless  little  ones  opens  men's  purse- 
strings.  This  fact,  in  connection  with  the  lack  of  homes  for  the 
orphaned  when  Christianity  came  to  Japan,  has  caused  a  great 
number  of  these  institutions  to  be  established.  In  1907,  the 
Christians  had  fifteen  orphanages,  the  Buddhists  ten,  and  there 
were  thirteen  others  that  have  no  acknowledged  religious  prefer- 
ence. 

The  Christian  orphanage  at  Okayama  is  by  far  the  largest  and 
best  in  the  country.  Mr.  J.  Ishii,  a  fine  Christian  gentleman, 
opened  this  institution  in  1887  and  the  work  was  a  success 
almost  from  the  start.  In  twenty  years,  it  has  so  grown  in  size 
and  influence  that  in  1906  its  total  receipts  were  yen  136,192.37, 
and  the  number  of  children  cared  for  was  1,200.  The  Emperor 
of  Japan  saw  fit  to  confer  upon  Mr.  Ishii  the  Order  of  ''The  Blue 
Ribbon."  He  has  also  bestowed  a  grant-in-aid  on  this  worthy 
institution.  This  was  the  first  formal  gift  by  the  emperor  to 
a  pronouncedly  Christian  institution.  There  are  now  over  ten 
thousand  sustaining  members  in  Japan  who  each  contribute 
yearly  a  ijen  or  more  towards  the  support  of  this  orphanage. 

The  famine  that  prevailed  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Japan  in 
1906,  brought  825  waifs  to  this  institution.  Of  these,  486  have 
been  returned  to  their  homes,  so  that  the  total  number  of  children 
now  being  cared  for  is  726.  The  home  has  printing  and  other 
industrial  departments,  so  that  already  there  are  many  graduates 
who  are  independently  earning  their  living  as  printers,  photog- 
raphers, merchants,  barbers  and  the  like. 

The  Sendai  Christian  Orphanage  is  also  the  result  of  the  famine 
of  1906.  About  300  waifs  were  gathered  together  at  that  time, 
and  an  appropriate  home  was  established  for  them,  largely  by 
the  missionaries.  At  present,  223  children  are  being  cared  for 
at  an  expense  of  about  $500  a  month. i 

Work   for   PrisOxXers   and   Released  Prisoners.— Taneaki 
Hara,  one  of  the  first  Japanese  converts  to  Christianity,  was  bap- 
tized  in  1875,  and  is  still  an  elder  in  the  Shiba  Church,  Tokyo. 
1  Christian  Movement,  1907,  and  1908. 


66  Christianity  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan 

In  1883,  he  published  a  treatise  on  freedom,  which  was  dis- 
agreeable to  the  government  and  for  which  he  was  put  into  prison. 
This  gave  him  an  opportunity  to  reaUze  the  urgent  need  of  prison 
reform.  Upon  being  released,  he  began  to  receive  liberated 
prisoners  into  his  own  home.  He  gave  up  all  his  property  for 
this  work  and  in  the  course  of  fourteen  years,  according  to  his 
own  statement,  305  men  and  women,  thoroughly  reformed,  were 
led  into  higher  and  better  lives. 

In  1897,  he  estabUshed  a  home  for  ex-prisoners  in  Tokyo,  and 
admitted  1,000  convicts,  Vv^ho  were  freed  by  the  general  amnesty 
after  the  death  of  the  Empress  Dowager.  He  says:  "Those  who 
come  to  my  home  for  protection  are  ever  welcome.  I  find  work 
for  them,  teach  them  to  save  money  and  to  enjoy  happiness  of 
home  life,"  Seven  out  of  every  ten  cases  that  have  come  under 
the  influence  of  Mr.  Hara  have  been  saved  to  society,  and  thus 
society  saved  from  them. 

Reformatory  Work. — Mr.  K.  Tomeoka,  an  active  Christian 
man,  spent  a  long  time  studying  prison  work  and  penology  in 
New  York  and  in  the  New  England  States.  Later  he  studied  in 
Germany  and  Great  Britain.  When  he  returned  to  Japan,  he 
was  appointed  teacher  of  morals  in  the  Sugamo  prison  in  Tokyo, 
the  best-conducted  prison  in  Japan.  He  is  now  the  instructor 
in  the  School  for  Training  Prison  Officials,  and  is  also  one  of  the 
influential  advisers  of  the  Government's  Bureau  of  Charities. i 

The  work  of  child-saving  appealed  very  strongly  to  Mr.  Tom- 
eoka, and  soon  he  opened  a  private  "Family  School,"  as  he  calls 
it.  It  is  a  school  for  wayward  children.  Since  his  venture,  and 
largely  because  of  it,  five  child-saving  institutions  have  been 
established  by  the  government,  and  there  are  seven  under  private 
management.  Recently  Mr.  Tomeoka's  School  received  a  gift 
of  $9,000,  which  is  a  very  respectable  sum  for  private  charity  in 
Japan.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the  idea  of  saving  chil- 
dren from  becoming  criminals,  and  the  organization  of  a  dozen 
or  more  institutions  for  this  purpose,  is  due  to  the  earnestness 
of  one  Christian  man,  Mr.  K.  Tomeoka. 


1  DeForest,  Sunrise  in  the  Sunrise  Kingdom,  p.  141. 


Influence  on  Philanthropic  and  Social  Work  67 

Lepers. — It  is  not  known  how  many  lepers  are  mixed  in  with 
the  fifty  miUions  of  population,  but  some  one  has  estimated 
the  number  to  be  about  60,000.  For  these,  nothing  direct  is 
done  by  the  pubUc.  Four  or  five  leper  homes  have  been  estab- 
lished by  the  Christians,  largely  missionaries.  The  cause  of  the 
insane  and  the  leper  has  not  yet  touched  the  Japanese  national 
heart  very  sympathetically,  but  strong  influences  are  at  work 
in  favor  of  both  of  these  unfortunate  classes.  In  1906,  the  em- 
peror decorated  with  the  "Blue  Cordon  of  Merit"  the  founders 
of  two  of  these  leper  homes,  M.  Core,  a  Frenchman,  and  Miss 
Hannah  Riddell,  an  English  lady,  who  is  the  first  foreign  woman 
in  Japan  to  receive  this  distinction.  This  recognition  of  the 
merit  of  these  persons  has  had  a  great  effect  on  pubUc  opinion 
as  regards  lepers  and  their  treatment. 

Such  an  institution  segregates  the  lepers,  gives  them  the  best 
medical  care,  provides  them  with  all  the  comforts  that  they  can 
enjoy,  and  brings  to  them  the  consoling  power  of  the  reUgion  of 
Christ.  But  it  is  especially  encouraging  to  note  that  the  govern- 
ment is  taking  steps  for  the  relief,  and  possibly  the  segregation, 
of  all  lepers  in  Japan,  an  intention  surely  encouraged  by  Christian 
initiative.! 

Medical  Work. — The  medical  missionary,  in  the  early  days 
of  Modern  Japan,  with  his  gentle  ministrations,  did  very  much  to 
remove  prejudices  against  Christianity.  It  is  said  that  some  of 
those  who  had  been  healed  by  one  of  these  foreign  benefactors, 
were  so  filled  with  gratitude  that  they  sometimes  literally  wor- 
shipped the  missionary,  or  put  his  photograph  among  the  objects 
of  devotion  on  the  "god-shelf."  - 

Usually,  in  the  early  days,  the  Japanese  physicians  were  glad 
to  gain  from  the  medical  missionaries  some  knowledge  of  foreign 
medicine.  These  medical  men  never  were  competitors  of  the 
Japanese  physicians,  as  they  usually  worked  in  connection  with 
the  native  doctors.     Such  men,  like  Drs.  Hepburn,  Berry,  Mac- 


1  Christian  Movement,  1907,  p.  103. 

2  Gary,  Japan  and  Its  Regeneration,  p.  111. 


68  Christianity  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan 

Donald  and  Whitney,  have  made  an  ineradicable  impression  on 
the  Japanese  nation.  But  the  end  of  the  medical  missionary's 
day  is  fast  approaching.  He  is  no  longer  needed  as  a  physician, 
as  Japan  has  plenty  of  able  physicians  among  her  own  people. 
In  1904,  there  were  in  Japan  fourteen  Protestant  hospitals 
and  dispensaries,  having  thirty  thousand  patients  a  year,  and  the 
Catholics  had  seventeen  such  institutions.  Many  of  the  Japanese 
physicians  are  Christian  men,  and  they  have  so  deeply  imbibed 
the  spirit  of  charity,  that  many  hospitals  for  the  poor  are  being 
conducted  by  them. 

Besides  the  Christian  institutions  specially  mentioned,  there 
are  Factory  Girls'  Homes  conducted  in  the  large  centers  of  in- 
dustry; Rescue  Homes,  to  give  the  fallen  women  another  chance 
at  life;  Day  Nurseries,  such  as  the  Aizawa  Creche  in  Yokohama, 
where  eighty  babies  are  tended;  Schools  for  the  Poor,  with  hos- 
pital and  dispensary  added.  Homes  for  the  Blind  are  also  kept 
up.  This  latter  is  a  large  field  for  charity  in  Japan,  as  there  are 
two  blind  persons  in  every  thousand  of  the  population,  which  is 
just  twice  the  percentage  that  holds  in  the  United  States.  But 
the  government  has  begun  in  earnest  to  care  for  its  sightless  citi- 
zens, though  only  a  small  part  of  these  unfortunate  people  is  as 
yet  adequately  provided  for. 

According  to  the  report  of  Dr.  J.  H.  Pettee,  the  following  is  a 
list  of  the  principal  private  institutions  of  charity  in  the  year 
1907: 

No  Acknowledged 
Religious 
Class.  Buddhist.  Christian.  Preference.       Total. 

Orphanages 10  15  13  38 

Jizenkai  (Charity  Organizations) ...  5  8  13 

Homes  for  ex-convicts 11  ..  11 

Asylums  for  the  Blind 5  .  .  5 

Leper  Hospitals 5  .  .  ,5 

Free  Schools  for  the  Poor 2  4  6  12 

Free  Kindergartens 5  .  .  5 

Miscellaneous 1  3  3  7 

Totals   13  49  37  99 


Influence  on  Philanthropic  and  Social  Work  69 

Young  Men's  Christian  Association. — The  Y.  M.  C.  A.  is 
the  most  popular  Christian  institution  in  Japan.  The  Buddhists 
have  imitated  it  by  estabUshing  a  Y.  M.  B.  A.,  thus  praising  its 
work  more  than  words  could  ever  have  done.  The  emperor 
bestowed  upon  this  Christian  Association  a  grant-in-aid  for  the 
noble  work  which  it  did  in  Manchuria  during  the  Russo-Japanese 
war.  It  is  undenominational  and  does  its  work  much  more 
according  to  sociological  principles  than  is  the  case  with  any  other 
Christian  body  now  doing  work  in  Japan.  It  engages  vigorously 
in  evangelistic,  educational  and  social  and  philanthropic  lines  of 
work,  and  is  the  agent  of  the  Department  of  Education  for  secur- 
ing suitable  American  young  men  as  teachers  of  English  in  the 
Government  Middle  Schools.  Through  the  instrumentality  of 
the  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  the  Conference  of  the  World's  Student  Christian 
Federation  was  held  in  Tokyo,  in  1907.  This  brought  the  leaders 
of  Christian  activity  from  twenty-five  different  countries  to  Japan, 
and  this  in  itself  gave  Japan  an  opportunity  to  form  an  opinion 
as  to  what  the  influence  of  Christianity  is  in  other  countries. 

The  Association  publishes  the  well-known  magazine  called 
"The  Pioneer."  It  is  also  keeping  up  an  Army  Department, 
which  is  carrying  on  work  among  the  soldiers  in  Tokyo  and  at 
Port  Arthur.  "The  total  number  of  young  men  in  attendance 
at  all  Association  Bible  Classes  each  week  has  averaged  over 
1,300,  in  addition  to  450  evening  school  students  who  have  re- 
ceived religious  instructions."  i 

One  of  the  latest  additions  to  the  general  Y.  M.  C.  A.  work  is 
the  establishing  of  Student  Hostels.  American  University  friends 
gave  $50,000  for  the  erection  of  these  dormitories.  They  are  fast 
being  erected  in  the  larger  student  centers,  such  as  Tokyo,  Osaka, 
Kyoto  and  Sendai.  "These  hostels  have  the  hearty  approval  of 
the  school  authorities,  who  realize  that  they  exert  a  strong, 
wholesome  influence  upon  the  student  body." 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  Japan  always  goes  to  the  Christian  coun- 
tries for  a  model  when  she  wants  to  introduce  any  kind  of  social 


1  Christian  Movement,  1908,  p.  249. 


70  Christianity  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan 

reform  work.  The  countries  of  Buddha,  of  Islam,  and  of  the 
Brahmins  have  not  contributed  a  single  institution  of  this  nature. 
The  people  of  Japan  possess  Buddhist  kindness,  and  to  this 
they  are  glad  to  add  Christian  love.  The  result  is  a  fast-growing, 
large-hearted  philanthropy.  In  the  Japan  Year-Book  for  1906, 
the  following  testimony  appears:  "It  is  a  significant  fact  that 
by  far  the  greater  part  of  private  charity  work  of  any  large  scope 
is  conducted  by  Christians,  both  natives  and  aliens." 

The  government  very  wisely  has  asked  some  Christian  men  to 
give  advice  in  the  conducting  of  public  charities,  and  largely  by 
them  the  foundation  of  a  magnificent  modern,  scientific  system 
of  social  reform  has  been  laid.  Japan  is  in  dire  need  of  this 
reform.  Dr.  J.  H.  Pettee,  in  his  article  on  "Charities  and  Social 
Reform,"  in  the  Christian  Movement  of  1908,  says:  "It  all  totals 
a  large  amount  of  helpful  ministry  over  which  we  rejoice.  But 
so  long  as  Japan  registers  an  average  annual  roll  of  9,000  suicides, 
1,200  murders,  a  "drink  bill'  of  yen  300,000,000,  uncounted 
millions  won  and  lost  by  a  variety  of  gambling  devices,  notwith- 
standing fairly  strict  law^s  against  this  evil,  and  the  open  sore  of 
prostitution  with  its  awful  consequences;  besides  the  periodic 
ravages  of  fire,  flood,  drought  and  earthquake,  it  is  evident  that 
much  yet  remains  to  be  accomplished.  The  practice  of  benevo- 
lence still  remains  a  necessity  as  well  as  a  virtue." 

Japan  has  fully  realized  that  men  and  women  are  her  most 
important  national  asset,  and,  therefore,  she  is  accepting  extra- 
ecclesiastical  Christianity,  which  aims  at  the  loving  treating  of 
all  her  sons  and  daughters,  fortunate  and  unfortunate. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  JAPANESE  CHRISTIAN  CHURCH 

Its  Size.  Rate  of  Increase.  Independence.  The  Masses  StUl  Un- 
reached. A  Questionnaire,  Obstacles  to  Rapid  Growth,  External 
and  Internal.  Co-operation.  Tendencies  in  the  Japanese  Church. 
The  Church  Japonicized.    Conclusion. 

We  have  seen  that  the  moral  ideals  and  benevolent  spirit  of 
Christianity  are  finding  an  earlier  welcome  in  Japan  than  are  the 
dogmas  of  the  Church  and  the  form  of  its  organization.  Anyone 
who  considers  the  laws  of  social  development,  will  not  be  sur- 
prised to  find  that  ecclesiastically  the  Christian  religion  has  thus 
far  found  less  favor  among  the  Japanese  than  its  more  material 
blessings  and  ethical  standards.  Indeed,  the  opposite  course, 
among  an  independent  and  enlightened  non-Christian  people, 
would  be  quite  unthinkable.  In  Europe,  during  the  Middle  Ages, 
when  the  pope's  power  was  well-nigh  absolute,  the  semi-barbarous 
Teutons  became  Christian  by  first  accepting  the  Church  as  an 
organization,  including  its  main  doctrines,  and  later  and  very 
slowly,  they  grew  into  Christian  morality  and  philanthropy. 
But  in  Japan,  as  has  been  noted,  the  order  of  Western  influence 
has  been,  first.  Western  civilization,  second,  Christian  benevo- 
lence, and  the  third  step  would  naturally  be  institutional  Christi- 
anity; but  this  step  has  not  yet  been  fully  taken.  It  would, 
however,  be  unwarranted  to  assume  that  because  Japan  has  not 
adopted  the  Occidental  form  of  the  Christian  Church,  she  will 
never  accept  any  form  of  it.  Let  us  see  what  the  facts  in  the 
case  are. 

Japan  is  really  the  first  highly  civilized,  non-Christian  country 
that  Christianity  has  ever  tried  to  win  to  its  faith,  and  this  puts 
the  religion  of  Christ  to  a  new  and  pecuUar  test.     From  this 

71 


72  Christianity  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan 

point  of  view,  there  is,  at  present,  no  other  non-Christian  nation 
that  is  religiously  of  such  vast  importance  to  the  scoiological 
student  as  Japan. 

Fifty  years  ago,  the  three  principal  forms  of  the  Christian  Church 
— Roman  Catholic,  Protestant  and  Greek  Catholic — began  to 
propagate  their  faiths  in  Japan.  The  Roman  Catholic  form  has 
come  from  France,  the  Protestant  mainly  from  America  and 
England,  and  the  Greek  CathoUc  form  has  come  from  Russia. 

There  are  1,031  foreign  missionaries  in  Japan,  and  1,847  Japan- 
ese workers  who  devote  all  their  time  to  Christian  work.  The 
number  of  communicant  members  in  all  the  churches  is  161,- 
228  (1908).  This  number  of  church  members  represents  prob- 
ably half  a  million  of  adherents,  that  is,  one  Japanese  out  of 
every  hundred  is  an  adherent  to  Christianity,  while  one  out  of 
every  three  hundred  and  twenty  of  the  population  is  a  baptized 
Christian. 

The  Christians  are  distributed  all  over  the  Empire,  though 
there  are  centers  in  which  the  proportion  is  much  larger  than  in 
other  places.  The  prefecture  that  has  the  most  Christians  in  it 
is  Nagasaki,  which  has  33,819.  Tokyo  city  stands  next,  with 
28,119.  Hokkaido  follows,  with  7,105;  then  comes  Osaka,  with 
6,781,  followed  by  KanagaM^a,  with  5,377.  Miyagi-ken  stands 
sixth,  with  5,143.  There  are  prefectures  like  Fukui  which  have 
less  than  two  hundred  converts.  Where  the  means  of  communi- 
cation are  bad  or  where  Buddhist  influence  is  strong,  the  number 
of  Christians  is  small,  but  there  is  not  a  single  prefecture  that 
has  no  Christians  residing  in  it.i 

The  rate  of  net  increase  of  church  membership  in  1901  was 
four  and  three-fifths  per  cent.,  and  the  increase  of  population  in 
the  same  year  was  one  and  one-fifth  per  cent.  For  the  year  1907, 
the  net  increase  in  the  Protestant  churches  was  eleven  and  three- 
fifths  per  cent.,  while  the  corresponding  increase  in  population 
was  about  one  and  two-fifths  per  cent.  No  report  of  the  Catho- 
lic gains  is  available  for  this  year,  but  it  is  probable  that  the  rate 
of  increase  is  less  than  that  of  the  Protestants. 


Japan  Weekly  Mail,  Dec.  28,  1907. 


The  Japanese  Christian  Church  73 

When  we  remember  that  on  account  of  the  influence  which  the 
missionaries  have  wielded  in  the  past  the  organization  and  doc- 
trines of  the  church  have  largely  been  foreign  and  un-Japanese 
in  form,  the  above  rate  of  increase  is  quite  remarkable.  But 
perhaps  a  better  criterion  by  which  to  estimate  the  real  strength 
of  the  Church  as  it  now  exists,  is  its  financial  ability.  In  this 
respect  the  showing  is  not  encouraging.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
year  1908,  the  Protestants  had  only  seventy-nine  churches 
that  were  wholly  self-supporting.  And  it  must  be  remembered 
that  into  the  treasuries  of  even  some  of  these  self-supporting 
churches  the  individual  missionaries  pay  a  considerable  sum, 
though  the  missions  as  bodies  do  not  do  so;  and  so  far  as  the 
putting  up  of  their  church  buildings  is  concerned,  a  very  great 
share  of  the  money  came  from  America  and  England.  The 
Roman  and  the  Greek  Catholic  churches  report  no  self-supporting 
congregations  at  all.  The  Protestants,  besides  the  seventy-nine 
self-supporting  churches,  have  350  churches  that  are  partly 
self-supporting  and  a  large  number  of  smaller  preaching  places. 
They  report  the  number  of  church  buildings  at  285,  the  number 
of  Sunday-school  teachers  and  scholars  in  1,006  Sunday-schools 
as  84,160. 

The  desire  for  self-support  is  slowly  growing,  but  the  desire 
for  independence  is  many  times  stronger.  This  longing  for  inde- 
pendence from  foreign  help,  or  rather  from  foreign  domination 
in  the  Japanese  Church,  has  been  immensely  deepened  since  the 
close  of  the  Russo-Japanese  war.  The  Christians  who  helped  to 
overcome  the  great  European  power  on  the  field  of  battle,  feel 
that  they  are  also  able  to  take  care  of  themselves  in  matters 
ecclesiastical;  and  what  is  felt  most  keenly  of  all  is  the  ineradic- 
able notion  that  the  acceptance  of  money  and  service  from 
foreigners  is  humiliating  to  Japan,  that  it  holds  her  people  up  as 
international  inferiors.  No  language  can  describe  the  intensity 
of  this  feeling.  The  Japanese  nature  will  never  brook  any 
invidious  discrimination.  In  this  feeling  lies  the  basis  of  a  pos- 
sible independent,  self-supporting  and  self-propagating  Christian 
Church  in  Japan.     But  under    the  immediate  circumstances,  this 


74  Christianity  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan 

very  feeling  may  also  be  a  hindrance  to  the  healthy  development 
of  the  church. 

As  to  who  the  Japanese  Christians  are,  it  can  be  truthfully  said 
that  all  classes  are  represented.  No  doubt  the  majority  are 
heimin  (commoners),  but  these  are  present  in  no  larger  propor- 
tion than  that  which  holds  in  the  whole  population.  A  large 
per  cent,  of  the  preachers  and  the  members  are  of  the  samurai 
class.  Doctors,  lawyers,  teachers,  students  and  retired  people, 
are  largely  represented  in  the  church  membership.  Not  many 
merchants  or  business  people,  and  consequently  but  few  wealthy 
people,  are  to  be  found  in  the  churches.  One  reason  for  the  ab- 
sence of  merchants  is  that  they  have  always  been  considered  as 
being  at  the  very  bottom  of  the  social  ladder,  and,  therefore,  not 
very  much  effort  has  been  made  to  reach  them.  But  another, 
and  more  weighty  reason,  is  the  fact  that  the  merchants  do  not 
beheve  that  becoming  Christians  would  help  them  in  making 
money. 

After  the  best  has  been  said  that  can  be  said  for  Japanese 
Christianity  as  it  now  is,  the  fact  remains  that,  socially,  the  masses 
of  the  people  have  not  yet  been  appreciably  touched.  With 
this  statement  agree  many  of  the  representative  missionaries  and 
Japanese  Christians.  Dr.  Nitobe,  in  "Bushido,"  says:  "As  yet 
Christian  Missions  have  effected  but  little  visible  in  moulding  the 
character  of  New  Japan."  The  Rev.  William  E.  Lampe,  Ph.D., 
though  gratified  with  the  progress  that  Christianity  has  made  in 
Japan,  yet  is  of  the  opinion  that  the  real  task  of  Christianity  in 
Japan  is  still  ahead  of  her.i  Dr.  S.  H.  Wainriglat,  in  an  address, 
said:  "Yet  on  the  whole  we  have  not  measured  up  to  our  ideals 
in  the  popularization  of  religion  in  making  the  light  and  strength 
of  the  Gospel  a  blessing  to  the  masses."  2  The  Rev.  Dr.  Thomp- 
son, one  of  the  oldest  missionaries  in  Japan,  gives  it  as  his  opinion 
that  "the  work  of  Christianizing  Japan,  broadly  speaking,  still 
remains  to  be  done,"  3  and  Mr.  William  T.  Ellis,  who  has  recently 

1  The  Japanese  Social  Organization. 

2  The  Christian  Moimnent,  1905,  p.  203. 

3  Report  of  Tokyo  Missionary  Conference,  1900,  p.  123. 


The  Japanese  Christian  Church  75 

made  a  very  thorough  investigation  along  these  lines,  gives  this 
as  his  impression:  "As  yet  the  cooHes  and  the  lowest  class  of  the 
Japanese  social  system  generally,  are  practically  unreached."  i 
About  six  years  ago,  some  sixteen  representative  Japanese 
teachers  sent  the  following  questionnaire  to  over  4,500  college 
and  university  students  in  Japan: 

1.  "Do  you  believe  in  religion?  Are  you  at  liberty  to  believe 
in  it  if  you  wish?" 

2.  "Have  you  any  desire  for  religion? 

3.  "Have  you  at  any  time  believed  in  religion?  If  so,  and  you 
have  relinquished  that  belief,  state  your  reasons  for  this  course. 

4.  "If  you  believe  in  no  religion,  what  do  you  depend  on  for 
regulating  your  daily  conduct?  Do  you  dislike  reUgion?  If  so, 
why? 

5.  "If  you  do  not  beUeve  in  reUgion  yourself,  do  you  recog- 
nize its  necessity  for  others?     If  so,  on  what  ground?" 

Only  952,  or  about  one-fifth  of  the  number  addressed,  sent  in 
answers.  From  these  answers  it  was  learned  that  less  than  half 
of  the  young  men  had  been  subject  to  any  religious  influence 
in  the  home.  Fifteen  per  cent,  had  been  affected  by  religion  at 
school.  Most  of  these  had  been  students  in  Mission  Schools  at 
some  time  in  their  lives.  About  one-third  of  these  had  been 
drawn  to  rehgion  b}^  biographies  of  great  men.  Others  thought 
that  all  religion  was  superstition.  They  were  opposed  to  Christi- 
anity because  theyw^ere  taught  that  it  was  antagonistic  to  State 
interests;  still  others  said  that  the  teachings  of  science  and  the 
immorality  of  some  of  the  professors  of  religion  kept  them  from 
adhering  to  religion. 

Of  the  952  young  men  that  sent  in  replies,  555  confessed  non- 
belief  in  rehgion;  all  except  134,  however,  had  desire  for  reUgion, 
but  found  intellectual  difficulties  in  the  way.  As  to  ethics,  most 
inclined  to  subjective  standards  and  away  from  codes  or  the 
creeds  of  the  religions. 

Outside  of  the  Christian  schools — and  this  questionnaire  was 


1  Outlook,  Jan.  16,  1909,  p.  133. 


76  Christianitij  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan 

conducted  outside  of  these — I  believe  that  this  result  is  a  fair 
representation  of  the  religious  life  of  Japanese  college  students. 
The  principal  reasons  for  religious  indifference  are  also  well 
brought  out,  and  the  proportion  of  names  representing  the  four 
religions,  seems  to  me  to  be  reliable.  The  adherents  were  divided 
as  follows:  Buddhists,  231;  Shintoists,  18;  Confucianists,  24; 
Christians,  68. 

Facts  such  as  these  show  clearly  that  Christianity  has  not  yet 
become  the  religion  of  the  Japanese  as  a  people,  but  it  is  also  evi- 
dent that,  notwithstanding  tremendous  obstacles,  the  great 
religion  of  the  West  has  gained  a  rather  firm  foothold.  The 
hindrances  and  problems  which  have  caused  the  slow  growth  of 
the  Church  in  Japan  are  of  two  kinds — external  or  foreign,  and 
internal  or  native.  For  the  former,  the  missionaries  and  the 
home  churches  which  they  represent,  are  responsible,  and  for  the 
latter  kind  of  hindrances,  Japan  and  the  Japanese  are  account- 
able. 

External  Obstacles. — In  the  first  place,  it  should  always 
be  kept  in  mind  that  the  missionary  works  under  a  natural  handi- 
cap of  tremendous  proportions.  In  comparing  him  with  church 
workers  at  home,  if  equally  efficient  service  is  desired,  the  mission- 
ary must  be,  by  all  odds,  the  stronger  man  at  the  start.  He  has 
to  teach  and  preach  in  a  foreign  language,  among  foreign  people, 
whose  customs  and  manner  of  thought  he  does  not  know  and 
never  can  fully  know,  and  where  he  has  no  social  standing  and 
sympathy  except  that  which  his  own  ability  and  character  per- 
force give  him.  Physically,  too,  he  is  somewhat  like  a  fish  out  of 
water.  He  can  by  no  means  do  the  same  amount  of  mental  work 
in  a  given  time  that  he  could  do  in  the  land  of  his  birth.  The 
very  large  number  of  nervous  break-downs  that  continually 
deplete  the  missionary  ranks  is  a  sufficient  proof  of  this  fact. 
But  in  some  cases,  the  neurasthenia  prevalent  among  mission- 
aries is  aggravated  by  uncongeniality  and  the  not  infrequent 
petty  differences  among  them,  which  sometimes  develop  into 
quarrels  that  are  known  to  the  public  abroad  and  at  home.  Mis- 
sionaries, it  must  be  remembered,  are  just  about  as  human  as 


The  Japanese  Christian  Church  77 

Christians  in  the  home-land  are.  Moreover,  the  selection  by  the 
missionary  of  co-workers  that  are  congenial  is  often  totally  im- 
possible on  the  mission  field. 

But  the  foremost  of  the  outside  obstacles  to  the  rapid  estab- 
hshment  of  the  Christian  Church,  is  the  fact  that  Christendom 
is  not  Christian.  If  all  the  people  living  in  the  so-called  Christian 
countries  were  real  followers  of  their  Master — even  though  they 
followed  Him  at  a  distance — Japan  would  long  ago  have  accepted 
the  faith.  Says  Prof.  Arthur  Lloyd,  of  the  Tokyo  Imperial  Uni- 
versity: "The  people  who  will  ultimately  convert  Japan  are  not 
so  much  the  missionaries  (though  I,  who  know  them  and  have 
been  of  them,  know  their  high  worth  right  well)  as  the  clergy 
and  laity  in  the  home  countries.  The  Japanese  reads  our  papers 
and  magazines  and  knows  all  our  reUgious  discussions;  he  travels 
the  whole  world  over,  note-book  and  pencil  in  hand,  and  makes 
many  an  observation  that  we  foreigners  little  suspect.  He  has 
an  intense  admiration  for  the  practically  useful,  and  when  he 
sees  our  faith  in  what  he  considers  its  native  soil,  bringing 
forth  fruits  of  unmistakable  good  living  and  a  civilization  truly 
Christian,  he  will  not  hesitate  to  adopt  anything  that  is  pure, 
just,  holy  or  of  good  report,  for  his  own  ethical  creed  has  taught 
him  to  lay  aside  all  blind  prejudice  and  look  at  everything  with 
an  open  mind."  i 

But  our  well-filled  prisons,  our  notorious  divorce  cases,  our 
drunkenness,  our  prostitution,  our  grasping  greediness,  our 
denominational  and  congregational  quarrels,  our  conflicting 
definitions  of  the  church,  the  decline  in  the  number  and  intel- 
lectual character  of  the  students  for  the  ministry,  the  almost 
regular  absence  of  the  men  from  the  churches,  and  the  steady 
growth  of  indifference  in  general,  are  facts  which  the  Japanese 
know,  perhaps,  better  than  we  do. 

Missionaries  speak  of  the  universal  brotherhood  of  man,  but 
our  home  countries  build  up  one  wall  after  another  to  show  the 
world  that  as  a  people,  we  do  not  believe  that  all  men  are  brothers. 


Japan  Evangelist,  August,  1908,  p.  290. 


78  Christianity  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan 

First  comes  the  high  tariff  wall,  which  says,  in  no  uncertain 
accents,  "We  will  not  let  you  deal  with  us  unless  you  pay  from 
fifty  to  a  hundred  cents  on  the  dollar  for  the  privilege  of  doing 
so."  Then  there  is  the  immigrant-exclusion  wall,  which  says  to 
the  Japanese  workingmen,  "You  are  not  worthy  to  enjoy  the 
same  food  and  conditions  that  we  enjoy;  we  are  afraid  that  3^ou 
will  get  the  better  of  us  in  open  competition,  therefore,  we  are 
going  to  show  our  brotherhood  by  locking  j^ou  out,  just  as  you 
did  the  rest  of  the  world  a  hundred  years  ago."  And  finally,  the 
highest  of  all,  comes  our  race-hatred  wall,  by  which  we  express 
our  assumption  that  God's  love  ends  where  the  white  skin  ends; 
that  the  Anglo-Saxon  race  has  a  monopoly  of  the  blessings  of  the 
Almighty,  and  that  the  divine  omnipotence  exhausted  its  store 
of  gray  matter  when  the  brains  of  the  white  race  were  created. 
These  proclamations  of  the  absence  of  real  brotherhood  come 
with  such  resounding  peals  across  the  Pacific  that  the  "poor 
missionary,"  with  his  story  of  love,  cannot  even  hear  his  own 
voice  above  the  general  din.  In  our  self-established  superiority, 
we  pity,  but  very  rarely  love,  a  non-Christian  of  another  race, 
forgetting  that  pity  is  a  proud  and  heathen  feeling  and  not  a 
Christian  one.  Ordinarily,  it  is  a  sentiment  that  involves  a 
"looking  down"  upon  a  being  less  fortunate  than  ourselves,  and 
ought  to  have  little  place  in  the  soul  of  a  Christian. 

A  second  hindrance  to  the  rapid  growth  of  the  Japanese 
Church  is  the  fact  that  Protestantism  is  not  now,  and  hardly 
ever  was,  Protestant.  The  heart  of  the  Reformation  in  the  six- 
teenth century  was  that  individual  faith  in  Christ  is  the  centre 
and  source  of  the  religious  life,  and  that  a  man's  conscience  must 
not  be  barred  by  any  external  authority.  In  the  thought  of 
Schleimacher,  Protestantism  makes  the  relation  of  the  indi- 
vidual to  the  church  depend  on  his  relation  to  Christ,  while 
Romanism  makes  the  relation  of  the  individual  to  Christ  depend 
on  his  relation  to  the  church. 

But  even  from  the  beginning  of  Protestantism,  there  were  those 
who  made  theology  the  vital  issue,  and  who  were  absolutely  intol- 
erant of  any  and  all  opinions  other  than  their  own.     The  funda- 


The  Japanese  Christian  Church  79 

mental  principle  of  religious  liberty,  that  "the  majority  has  no 
right  to  bind  the  conscience  of  the  minority,"  was  flung  to  the 
winds,  and  they  soon  began  to  burn  heretics,  i 

It  is  a  great  delusion  if  the  home  church  thinks  that  the  Japan- 
ese do  not  know  that  some  Protestants  do  not  commune  with 
others  that  some  re-baptize  those  who  have  been  baptized  by 
others,  that  some  churches  will  not  give  letters  of  dismissal  to 
any  other  body,  that  a  sixteenth  century  system  of  theology  is 
in  many  cases  the  basis  of  church  membership,  rather  than  a 
truly  religious  life. 

It  is  only  natural  to  expect  that  foreign  missionaries  should 
commonly  continue  in  the  theological  way  in  which  they  have 
been  trained ;  but  be  it  said  to  the  honor  of  a  large  number  of  the 
missionaries  in  Japan,  that  they  are  more  Uberal,  more  truly 
Protestant  and  less  "respecting  of  persons"  in  their  loves  than 
many  of  the  Christians  who  stay  in  the  home  land.  To  prove 
this,  I  need  but  mention  that  church  union  is  much  farther  ad- 
vanced in  Japan  than  in  America.  In  Japan,  there  is  only  one 
Methodist  Church;  seven  Presbyterian  and  Reformed  missions 
are  all  one  in  the  Japanese  Church;  all  the  Baptist  divisions  are 
united  in  Japan,  and  more  than  this,  consultations  among  some 
of  the  Protestant  bodies  are  continually  being  held  with  a  view 
to  organic  union.  In  methods  of  church  work,  also,  there  is 
unanimity  to  a  much  larger  degree  than  is  the  case  in  America. 

Nevertheless,  there  are  those  among  the  missionaries  who,  as 
has  been  suggested  before,  unconsciously  and  consciously  are 


1  A  good  example  of  tliis  spirit  is  that  of  Hohenegg,  a  Lutheran  court  theo- 
logian of  Saxony  duiing  the  Thirty  Years'  War:  "For  it  is  as  plain  as  that  the 
sun  sliines  at  midday,  that  the  Calvinistic  doctrine  is  full  of  frightful  blas- 
phemy, horrible  error  and  mischief,  and  is  diametrically  opposed  to  God's 
holy,  revealed  Word.  To  take  up  arms  for  the  Calvinists  is  nothing  else 
than  to  serve  under  the  originator  of  CaKinism — the  devil.  We  ought, 
indeed,  to  give  our  lives  for  our  brethren;  but  the  Calvinists  are  not  our 
brethren  in  Christ;  to  support  them  would  be  to  offer  ourselves  and  our 
children  to  Moloch.  We  ought  to  love  our  enemies,  but  the  Cahanists  are 
not  our  enemies,  but  God's." — Adams,  Civilization  During  the  Middle  Ages, 
p.  439. 


08  Christianity  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan 

trying  to  make  American  Christians  out  of  Japanese  people. 
This  is  an  utter  impossibiUty,  especially  with  a  people  so  proud 
and  so  ultra-nationalistic  as  the  Japanese  are.  This  same  class 
of  church  workers  begin  their  missionary  work  by  trying  to  de- 
molish every  vestige  of  the  religious  institutions  that  Japan  has 
built  up  in  two  thousand  years — faiths  that  have  served  and 
preserved  the  nation  through  all  these  years.  Such  missionaries 
have  utterly  forgotten  the  oft -repeated  principle  of  Christ,  "I 
came  not  to  destroy,  but  to  fulfil."  How  much  wiser  the  great 
foreign  missionary  Paul  was,  who  found  that  the  Jewish  religion 
which  he  had  cast  off  was,  after  all,  a  "school-master  leading  to 
Christ." 

The  candid  person  who  knows  what  Buddhism  and  Confucian- 
ism are,  and  has  seen  that  in  some  respects  they  coincide  with 
Christianity,  will  very  gladly  confess  that  these  also  are  school- 
masters leading  to  Christianity,  and  that  the  mission  of  Christi- 
anity here  is,  as  it  was  in  Christ's  time,  to  fulfil  and  not  to  de- 
stroy. In  order  to  judge  how  faithful  schoolmasters  these  two 
religions  have  been  in  leading  the  Japanese  people  nearer  to 
Christianity,  it  w^ould  only  be  necessary  to  study  the  religious 
condition  of  the  people  as  it  was  previous  to  the  introduction  of 
Buddhism  into  Japan,  in  552  A.  D.  No  one  can  doubt  for  a 
moment  the  immense  improvement  of  society  that  has  taken 
place  through  the  former  efforts  of  these  religions. 

The  missionaries  belonging  to  this  class  have  purposely  failed 
to  make  plain  some  connection  between  the  lower  religion  of  their 
hearers  and  the  higher  one  to  which  they  would  lead  them.  As 
has  often  been  pointed  out,  the  ethical  elements  in  Buddhism 
and  Confucianism  might  easily  form  a  splendid  bridge  between 
them  and  Christianity.  Nothing  worth  mentioning  has  ever 
been  attempted  along  this  line  by  the  missionaries;  and,  indeed, 
this  harmonizing  must  be  done  by  the  Japanese  Christians  them- 
selves. 

Too  often  the  relation  of  the  past  to  the  present  is  totally 
ignored,  and  a  large  part  of  the  missionary  work  is  still  done  in 
absolute    disregard    of    all    sociological    principles.     Intolerance 


The  Japanese  Christian  Church  81 

against  the  most  sacred  foundations  of  Japanese  society  is 
preached,  and  when  some  Japanese  assume  the  right  to  love  these 
institutions,  there  are  missionaries  who  call  it  the  extreme  of 
wickedness.  1 

It  is  quite  certain  that  unless  Christianity  can  be  introduced 
without  doing  violence  to  the  national  spirit,  and  having  some 
regard  for  the  religious  instincts  of  the  people,  it  will  never  be 
introduced — just  as  our  European  ancestors  would  never  have 
accepted  it,  if  modification  had  been  impossible.  The  wise  mis- 
sionary will  honestly  and  earnestly  present  the  Gospel  to  the 
Japanese,  and  endeavor  to  plant  it  in  the  new  soil,  but  he  will 
never  try  to  build  Japan's  social  institutions.  For,  that  is  just 
as  impossible  for  a  foreigner  to  do  as  it  it  to  digest  and  assimilate 
the  food  for  somebody  else's  system. 

Those  who  try  to  administer  their  own  form  of  theology  to 
the  Japanese  with  directions  of  "touch  not,  handle  not"  have 
perhaps  never  taken  time  to  consider  that  European  theology 
itself  is  largely  an  accretion  that  has  been  gathered  from  the 
different  peoples  and  their  philosophies.  Some  scholars  find 
Greek  philosophy  even  in  parts  of  the  Bible.  Men  like  Justin 
Martyr,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  Origen  spent  their  whole 
lives  in  harmonizing  Christianity  and  Greek  philosophy,  and  the 
result  was  the  first  Christian  theology.  Augustine  took  this 
Greek  result  and  added  to  it  Rome's  contribution;  and  thus,in 
time,  the  simple  Gospel  teaching — which  certainly  has  large 
social  and  democratic  elements  in  it — by  the  mighty  empire  of 
pagan  Rome  was  changed  into  absolute  monarchy,  and  given 
expression  in  the  ecclesiastical  empire  of  the  popes.  The  anchor- 
ite, the  monk,  asceticism,  the  worship  of  saints  are  directly  pagan. 
"Many  of  the  customs  of  our  rehgious  festivals  are  the  result  of 
the  partial  infusion  of  the  Christian  spirit  into  ancient  popular 


^  "Never  will  the  East  turn  Christian  while  dogmatism  requires  the  convert 
to  deny  his  ancient  obligation  to  the  family,  the  community  and  the  govern- 
ment— and  further  insists  that  he  prove  Ms  zeal  for  an  alien  creed  by  de- 
stroying the  tablets  of  his  ancestors,  and  outraging  the  memory  of  those  who 
gave  him  life." — Japan,  an  Interpretation,  p.  524. 


82  Christianity  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan 

customs."  The  Christmas-tree  is  a  well-known  example  of  this. 
The  Germans  also  made  their  contribution  to  the  general  result, 
and  the  Puritans,  in  turn,  did  their  part  in  shaping  theology  to 
suit  their  needs  and  religious  sentiments.  Refusing  the  Japanese 
the  right  to  do  what  other  countries  have  done,  seems,  to  saj^  the 
least,  unjust.  But  we  may  feel  sure  that  in  this  respect  the  Japan- 
ese, in  spite  of  what  foreigners  may  think  about  it,  will  do  exactly 
what  other  races  have  done — take  the  matter  into  their  own  hands 
and  proceed  to  make  adjustments  to  suit  their  racial  and  re- 
ligious feelings.  It  is  the  great  glory  of  Christianity  that  it  admits 
of  such  adjustment  without  losing  its  identity — that  though  pass- 
ing through  many  vicissitudes,  it  continues  to  be  the  "power  of 
God  unto  salvation  to  every  one  that  belie veth." 

One  more  obstacle  to  the  growth  of  the  Japanese  Church  is  the 
unsettled  status  subsisting  between  the  missions  and  the  native 
church,  and  the  constant  quibbling  and  quarrelling  that  on  this 
account  has  been  going  on  for  the  last  ten  years.  The  matter  of 
the  right  of  control  over  the  native  church  and  its  activities  has 
been  a  fruitful  source  of  misunderstanding.  At  first,  the  mis- 
sionaries necessarily  had  almost  absolute  power,  but  as  the 
Japanese  Church  grew  it  naturally  began  to  assert  itself  and  to 
demand  more  rights.  In  the  case  of  the  Methodist,  Congrega- 
tional and  Presbyterian-Reformed  groups,  the  Japanese  Churches 
are  now  absolutely  independent.  The  missions  and  the  respective 
native  churches  are  now  trying  to  co-operate.  Roughly  speaking, 
this  means  that  the  missionary  is  to  furnish  the  funds,  and  the 
Japanese  are  to  do  the  major  part  of  the  work.  By  an  unwise 
use  of  money,  the  missionary  himself  sometimes  has  stood  in  the 
way  of  self-support.  He  has  also  frequently  been  charged  with 
employing  totally  unfit  workers.  Sometimes  the  opposite  com- 
plaint is  made,  namely,  that  the  missionary  is  too  miserly  in  the 
payment  of  the  salaries  of  those  who  work  under  him.  It  goes 
without  saying  that  the  so-called  co-operation  does  not  run  very 
smoothly,  often  having  in  it  but  little  "operation"  and  no  "co" 
at  all. 

It  always  is  difficult  for  missionaries,  as  it  would  be  for  any- 


The  Japanese  Christian  Church  83 

one  else,  to  live  up  to  the  spirit  of  John  the  Baptist — "He  must 
increase,  but  I  must  decrease."  Says  Dr.  Arthur  Judson  Brown, 
"It  takes  a  great  deal  of  grace  for  the  missionary,  after  having 
been  the  supreme  authority  for  years,  to  accept  a  place  subordi- 
nate to  that  of  the  natives  whom  he  has  trained.  Missionaries 
in  some  fields  already  find  themselves  in  this  position,  and  they 
would  hardly  be  human  if  they  did  not  feel  uncomfortable.  *  *  * 
Such  a  spirit  of  self-sacrificing  independence  (on  the  part  of  the 
native  church)  is  far  more  helpful  than  flabby  and  supine  acqui- 
escence in  external  leadership."  i 

Very  occasionally  one  meets  with  a  missionary  who  seems  to 
feel  it  his  duty  to  undertake  to  do  all  the  work  of  Paul,  Apollos 
and  God — "plant,"  "water"  and  "give  the  increase."  Whether 
pleasant  or  unpleasant,  in  missions  as  in  pedagogy,  it  is  a  prin- 
ciple of  prime  importance  for  the  teacher  to  make  himself  need- 
less as  soon  as  possible.  But  so  long  as  the  missionary  to  Japan 
is  really  needed — as  it  seems  he  now  is — it  were  wise  if  he  kept 
himself  well  informed  as  to  whether  his  particular  services  con- 
tinue to  be  of  the  greatest  worth.  One  way  of  testing  his  help- 
fulness would  be  to  ask  himself  the  question,  whenever  he  is 
about  to  begin  some  new  work,  "Would  a  Japanese  Christian  of 
equal  education  with  myself  and  of  like  spiritual  character,  ap- 
prove of  this  work,  and  would  he  do  it  in  somewhat  the  same 
way  as  I  am  going  to  do  it?"  If  the  honest  answer  to  the  first 
part  of  this  question  is  negative,  the  obviously  wise  thing  to  do 
is  not  to  do  anything ;  and  if  the  proposed  methods  should  be  such 
that  they  would  in  any  way  injure  the  cause  that  he  wishes  to 
promote,  adjustment  along  this  line  would,  of  course,  be  im- 
perative. 

Internal  Hindrances. — While  Christianity  asks  for  a  new 
spiritual  being,  a  large  part  of  Japanese  society  still  applies  a 
purely  objective  test  to  religion.  The  general  attitude  of  the 
nation  towards  religion  is  ultimately  political.  "Will  it  be  for 
the  good  of  the  empire  and  the  emperor?"  seems  to  be  the  funda- 


1  Arthur  J.  Brown,  The  Why  and  How  of  Foreign  Missions,  pp.  161,  162. 


84  Christianity  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan 

mental  criterion  that  is  always  applied.  And  in  the  proportion 
as  the  answer  to  this  ever-present  question  has  been  affirmative 
or  negative,  has  Christianity  met  with  opposition  or  favor  at  the 
hands  of  Japanese  society. 

Some  years  ago  the  question  of  making  Christianity  the  state 
religion  by  legal  enactment  was  actually  considered.  "Twenty 
years  ago  Bismarck  told  a  Japanese  representative  that  Japan 
could  never  expect  to  be  rated  as  a  great  world  power  until  she 
became  a  Christian  nation.  That  idea  lodged  in  the  Japanese 
official  mind;  and  it  sheds  light  on  the  recent  religious  history 
of  the  country."  i  From  about  1885  to  1889,  there  was  serious 
talk  of  opening  the  proceedings  of  the  Diet  by  prayer,  just  as  is 
done  in  some  Christian  countries.  This  idea  was  proposed  in 
a  public  speech  and  it  was  greeted  with  enthusiastic  applause. 
The  actual  adoption  of  such  a  bill  was  nearer  than  is  popularly 
known,  but  fortunately  the  infant  church  was  saved  from  this 
imminent  danger.  A  commission  was  appointed  to  prepare  a 
report  upon  the  influence  of  Christianity  in  checking  vice  and 
crime  abroad.  This  was  done,  and  providentially,  as  it  would 
seem,  the  report  w^as  such  that  an  unfavorable  impression  was 
made  on  the  lawmakers  of  Japan.  2 

Moreover,  the  opposition  to  the  moevment,  at  the  psycho- 
logical moment,  threw  a  firebrand  among  the  excited  advocates 
of  the  measure,  by  strongly  asserting  that  Christianity  would 
undermine  patriotism  and  would  bring  dire  calamity  upon  the 
empire.  This  had  the  desired  effect.  A  little  later — in  1897 — 
a  movement  to  revive  Shintoism  was  inaugurated  by  a  number 
of  influential  men,  who  "issued  a  challenge  to  all  Japanese 
Christians  asking  them  to  return  plain,  unequivocal  answers  to 
certain  questions.  The  first  three  of  these  were:  (1)  Can  the 
worship  of  His  Sacred  Majesty,  the  Emperor,  which  every  loyal 
Japanese  performs,  be  reconciled  with  the  worship  of  God  and 
Christ  by  Christians?     (2)  Can  the  existence  of  authorities  that 


^Outlook,  Jan.  16,  1909,  b.  130. 
2  Academy,  66,  382. 


The  Japanese  Christian  Church  85 

are  quite  independent  of  the  Japanese  state,  such  as  that  of  God, 
Christ,  the  Bible,  the  Pope,  the  Head  of  the  Greek  Church  (Czar), 
be  regarded  as  harmless?  (3)  Can  the  Japanese  who  is  the 
faithful  servant  of  Christ  be  regarded  at  the  same  time  as  the 
faithful  servant  of  the  emperor  and  a  true  friend  of  His  Majesty's 
faithful  subjects?  Or  to  put  it  another  way,  Is  our  emperor  to 
follow  in  the  wake  of  Western  emperors  and  to  pray  '  Son  of  God, 
have  mercy  on  me?'"i 

Of  the  rapidly  decreasing  number  of  Japanese  who  continue 
to  urge  these  views  against  Christianity,  Dr.  Hiroyuki  Kato  is 
by  far  the  ablest  and  most  influential.  He  is  a  baron,  who  is 
now  a  member  of  the  House  of  Peers,  and  who  at  one  time  was 
the  president  of  the  Imperial  University  in  Tokyo.  He  is  so 
ultra-nationalistic  that  he  claims,  in  a  book  which  he  published 
in  1907,  Waga  Kokutai  to  Kirisutokyo  (Our  Country  and  Christi- 
anity), that  one  of  the  most  poisonous  doctrines  of  Christianity 
is  its  idea  of  a  universal  brotherhood.  It  is  a  cosmopolitan  re- 
ligion that  takes  no  cognizance  of  any  particular  state,  and 
places  God  on  a  higher  throne  than  the  emperor  and  his  ancestors. 
He  says,  "We  Japanese  know  of  no  being  who  is  higher  than  the 
emperor."  He  states  that  Christianity  is  not  suited  to  Japan, 
because  it  is  too  individualistic,  while  Japan  is  communistic. 
It  is  detrimental  to  the  welfare  of  the  country  because  it  is  super- 
stitious, unscientific  and  really  urges  treason.  Therefore, 
Christianity  cannot  claim  the  constitutional  privilege  granted  to 
religions  that  are  not  detrimental  to  the  State.  Perhaps  Dr. 
Kato's  is  the  only  great  voice  that  continues  to  be  raised  against 
Christianity  as  a  destroyer  of  patriotism;  but  there  are  many 
educated  persons  who  would  perhaps  class  most  of  the  teachings 
of  Christianity  among  human  superstitions  and  totally  unneces- 
sary for  moral  greatness.  2 


1  Otis  Gary,  Japan  and  Its  Regeneration,  p.  97. 

2  Professor  Okakura  says:  "We  do  not  see  any  conv-incing  reason  why 
morals  should  be  based  upon  the  teaching  of  a  special  denomination,  in  face 
of  the  fact  that  we  can  be  upright  and  brave  without  the  help  of  a  creed  with 
a  God  or  deities  at  its  other  end."     Prince  Ito  says,  on  the  same  subject: 


86  Christianity  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan. 

The  native  religions,  also,  in  some  respects,  or  at  least  some 
of  their  adherents,  may  be  considered  as  hindrances  to  the  growth 
of  Christianity.  Individual  members  of  these  old  faiths  have 
had  much  influence  in  keeping  Christianity  socially  tabooed. 
This  is  especially  true  in  some  sections  of  the  country,  such  as 
Fukui  Prefecture,  where  the  Buddhist  forces  are  especially 
strong.  In  some  villages  it  is  very  difficult  to  rent  a  building  for 
the  purpose  of  holding  Christian  meetings.  This  opposition  often 
has  its  main  sources  in  the  priests  of  the  community.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  priests  are  despised  by  a  large  part  of  society, 
and  it  is  very  natural  for  many  of  this  anti-priest  class  of  people 
to  put  the  Christian  preacher  in  the  same  class  with  the  priests, 
thus  giving  him  a  low  social  standing.  In  many  ways,  there  is 
a  sort  of  a  bloodless  persecution  against  Christianity  still  carried 
on  by  the  leaders  of  the  old  religions.  But  in  the  larger  sense  of 
the  word,  these  religions  are  not  a  permanent  hindrance  to 
Christianity,  but  at  bottom,  they  have  unconsciously  and  un- 
willingly aided  in  preparing  its  way  before  it. 

If  the  missionary  represents  a  higher  religion  and  a  superior 
civilization,  it  is  also  certainly  true  that  these  are  vastly  more 
expensive  than  were  the  former  ways  of  social  life.  The  financial 
weakness  of  society  in  general  and  of  Christians  in  particular,  is 
a  serious  hindrance  to  the  rapid  spread  of  Christianity.  This 
difficulty  is  most  plainly  felt  by  those  Japanese  Christians  that 
have  been  educated  abroad,  who  know  exactly  what  salary  the 
American  minister  receives,  and  how  he  lives.  The  Japanese 
thus  educated — and  a  large  percentage  of  the  Christian  students 
desperately  seek  after  such  an  education — have  more  legitimate 
needs  than  one  who  has  not  been  thus  trained.  But  for  such 
men  to  go  back  to  their  own  primitive  villages  and  there  to  work 


"I  regard  religion  itself  as  quite  unnecessary  for  a  nation's  life.  Science  is 
far  above  superstition;  and  what  is  religion,  Buddhism  or  Christianity,  but 
superstition,  and,  therefore,  a  possible  source  of  weakness  to  a  nation?  I 
do  not  regret  the  tendency  to  free  thought  and  atheism,  which  is  almost 
universal  in  Japan,  because  I  do  not  regard  it  as  a  source  of  danger  to  the 
community." — Japan  Weekly  Mail,  Oct.  5,  1907. 


The  Japanese  Christian  Church  87 

at  a  salary  of  one-tenth  the  amount  that  his  American  brother 
receives,  and  under  immensely  greater  difficulties  and  at  loss  of 
social  standing,  is  a  condition  that  cannot  be  fully  understood 
by  those  who  have  never  seen  it.  Moreover,  the  Japanese  min- 
ister's salary  is  considered  by  his  countrymen  much  more  like 
charity  than  is  the  case  in  America  and  Europe,  and  the  accept- 
ance of  charity,  if  it  is  called  by  that  name,  is  terribly  grating 
to  the  sensibilities  of  all  Japanese.  Hence,  there  is  a  tendency 
for  those  educated  abroad  to  engage  in  teaching  rather  than 
preaching. 

One  more  temporary  hindrance  is  found  in  the  peculiar  trait  of 
Japanese  to  follow  leaders  rather  than  principles.  Great  leaders 
are  an  absolute  necessity  to  further  any  social  movement  in 
Japan.  Of  such,  Japanese  Christianity  has  far  too  few  as  yet. 
"The  Fukuin  Shimpo"  [Gospel  News  (Presbyterian)],  on  this 
subject  expresses  itself  as  follows:  "We  are  of  the  opinion  that 
it  is  better  to  do  nothing  than  to  employ  unsuitable  agents.  We 
are  for  beginning  nothing  until  the  right  men  are  found,  and  for 
stopping  work  that  has  already  been  commenced  if  it  is  being 
carried  on  in  an  unworthy  manner  owing  to  the  inferiority  of  the 
workers.  There  is  nothing  that  does  more  harm  to  Christianity 
than  the  employment  of  unsuitable  men  as  a  temporary  expedi- 
ent till  better  men  are  forthcoming.  Resort  to  this  practice  tends 
to  keep  men  of  character  and  talent  out  of  the  ministry."! 

Thu  s  the  problems  that  call  for  solution  by  the  Japanese  Church 
are  very  real,  and  they  are  by  no  means  few  in  number,  nor  easy 
to  solve.  But  by  closely  observing  the  tendencies  that  are  at 
work  in  that  part  of  the  native  church  which  is  most  independent 
of  outside  control,  the  probable  way  out  of  these  difficulties  can 
even  now  be  foreseen.  Let  it  be  repeated  that  this  is  a  Japanese 
problem,  and  that  the  foreign  missionary  can  be  of  help  n  the 
solution  of  it  only  when  he  recognizes  that  he  must  be  the  willing 
and  only  temporary  servant,  and  not  the  master  in  the  under- 
taking— that  he  must  act  in  the  capacity  of  brakeman  rather 
than  conductor. 


Japan  Weekly  Mail,  Dec.  12,  1908. 


88  Christianity  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan 

To  see  the  religious  problem  of  Japan  clearly,  it  is  imperative 
that  in  our  thinking  we  distinguish  between  religion  and  theology. 
Both  of  these  elements  necessarily  enter  into  the  problem,  but 
not  as  co-ordinates.  Surely  we  would  have  theology  subordinate 
to  religion.  The  proper  relation  between  theology  and  religion 
may  perhaps  best  be  expressed  under  the  figures  of  a  scientific 
lecture  on  dietetics  and  a  good  breakfast.  The  Japanese  prefer 
the  breakfast.  The  simple  religion  of  Jesus  Christ  is  not  repug- 
nant to  them;  but,  on  the  contrary,  appeals  mightily  to  them. 
Jesus  was  an  Oriental,  and  his  "untheologized"  teachings  they 
can  very  readily  understand.  It  is  vastly  easier  for  the  Oriental 
mind  to  feel  Christ  than  it  is  for  the  Occidental,  w^ho  is  far  more 
materiaUstic  in  his  thinking.  The  loving  and  lovable  personality 
of  Christ  is  deeply  appreciated  by  the  Japanese.  The  fatherhood 
of  God,  a  spiritual  paternalism,  can  surely  be  grasped  by  people 
whose  whole  mode  of  thinking  is  paternalistic,  and  the  worship 
of  the  Heavenly  Father  is  not  difficult  to  understand  by  those 
who  worship  their  physical  ancestors  and  their  temporal  ruler. 
The  idea  of  the  brotherhood  of  man  is  but  the  enlarged  and 
deepened  form  of  filial  piety  which  is  so  indigenous  to  the  Orient. 
And  so  far  as  self-sacrifice  (kenshin-gisei)  is  concerned,  the  Japan- 
ese can  easily  give  us  useful  lessons,  for  this  is  the  very  life  of 
their  society.  Nowhere  else  in  the  world  is  there  a  like  spirit  of 
self-sacrifice  shown  as  the  patriotism  of  Japan  portrays.  The 
subjective  basis  for  the  adoption  of  Christianity  is  here,  the 
object  of  worship  only  has  to  be  changed.  It  is  readily  con- 
ceivable that  the  adjustment  of  Japan  to  the  essentials  of  Christi- 
anity will  be  easy  and  perfect  beyond  any  precedent.  "It  is  an 
Asiatic  religion  offered  to  an  Asiatic  people.  *  *  *  Self-abnega- 
tion, ideahsm,  the  sacrifice  of  the  present  to  the  future — of  ease, 
and  even  of  life,  to  duty — seem  to  come  more  natural  to  the  Asiatic 
mind  than  to  the  Western  mind.  Moreover,  the  religions  of 
Confucius  and  of  Buddha,  which  have  helped  to  civihze  Japan, 
are  great  religions,  holding  many  truths  of  philosophy  and  ethics 
in  common  with  the  religion  of  Christ.  No  nation  seems  ever  to 
have  been  so  favorably  situated  to  consider  and  compare  the 


The  Japanese  Christian  Church  89 

great  religions  of  the  world,  and  choose  the  best,  as  is  Japan  to- 
day. Nothing  can  be  forced  upon  her.  She  knows  the  defects 
of  her  own  religious  system;  she  can  look  abroad  and  study  the 
fruits  of  every  other  system,  and  if  she  finds  a  better  one,  can 
take  so  much  of  it  as  she  thinks  is  true."  i 

The  Christian  of  the  West  needs  not  fear  that  the  Christianity 
of  the  Japanese  will  not  be  Christian.  What  he  may  expect  as  a 
final  result  is  that  it  is  very  probable  that  it  will  be  more  Christian 
than  his  own.  The  religious  practice  that  will  result  from  this 
Japanese  interpretation  and  adaptation,  will  be  Christian,  but  it 
will  also  be  Japanese.  Japan's  intense  nationahstic  unity  will 
make  it  easier  for  her  than  for  any  other  country  to  refuse  to 
accept  divided  Christianity — Protestant,  Roman  and  Russian — 
and  accept  only  the  facts  and  documents  of  Christianity,  and  be 
the  first  nation  to  build  up  one  undivided  Christian  Church. 

No  doubt,  many  difficulties  will  be  in  the  way  of  attaining  this 
result,  but  these  problems  and  difficulties  will  be  of  a  far  different 
nature  than  the  "five  knotty  points  of  Calvinism"  and  their  ilk. 
How  far  the  Japanese  Church  has  proceeded  towards  this  goal 
is  the  one  remaining  subject  that  claims  our  consideration.  In 
the  following  extracts  I  shall  let  the  Japanese  Christians  speak 
for  themselves  on  this  question. 

Three  years  ago  a  Japanese  Christian  gave,  in  Tokyo,  an 
address  on  "Christianity  and  Modern  Japanese  Thought."  He 
said  that  the  form  of  Christian  truth  most  easily  assimilated  by 
present-day  Japanese  thinkers  is  the  moral  and  social  code  of 
Christianity.  They  will  readily  understand  if  you  say  that  God 
is  Creator,  or  that  heaven  is  order;  but  a  God  with  personality  is 
an  idea  hard  for  them  to  grasp.  Even  among  Christians  (Japan- 
ese) of  the  present  time  the  number  who  have  really  compre- 
hended this  personal  God  is  comparatively  small. 

A  ready  understanding  will  be  met  with  if  Christ  is  said  to  be 
a  man  of  perfection,  of  perfect  righteousness,  or  the  like.  But 
the  divine  nature  of  Christ  they  do  not  readily  accept.     If  the 


Harper's  Weekly,  Sept.  30,  1905. 


90  Christianity  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan 

Holy  Spirit  is  spoken  of  as  an  influence,  or  as  the  power  of  God, 
they  will  understand,  but  here  again  in  grasping  the  existence  of 
personality  they  have  difficulty. 

The  weakness  of  mankind  they  well  know.  To  make  them 
take  the  next  step,  to  grasp  the  sinfulness  of  sin,  is  the  great 
problem.  The  conviction  of  a  personal  God  and  a  sinful  self  is 
the  key  to  unlock  the  ultimate  secret  of  Christianity.  Until  this 
is  really  grasped,  the  other  problems  are  unintelligible.  The 
vicarious  sacrifice  of  Christ  does  not  find  ready  acceptance, 
while  Christ's  self-sacrificial  spirit  is  heartily  welcomed. i 

Dr.  J.  Takagi,  in  an  article  that  caused  a  great  deal  of  com- 
ment, writes  as  follows:  "Regarding  the  later  developments  of 
Christian  thought,  various  criticisms  can  be  made;  but  if  we  look 
at  the  original  religion  of  Jesus  Himself,  there  is  nothing  we  can 
criticise.  To-day  there  are  two  points  open  to  criticism.  The 
first  point  pertains  to  theological  theories.  For  example,  the 
theory  of  original  sin,  the  theory  of  the  fall  of  man,  the  theory  of 
the  incarnation,  the  theory  of  the  atonement.  For  the  most  part, 
these  theological  theories  developed  after  the  time  of  Paul  and 
were  not  found  in  the  religion  of  Jesus.  Of  course,  these  theories 
are  not  pure  invention,  but  looked  at  in  the  light  of  to-day,  the 
greater  part  seem  like  idle  discussion.  The  second  point  opea  to 
criticism  pertains  to  rites  and  ceremonies,  on  which  the  Church 
has  placed  a  disproportionate  emphasis,  explaining  them  as  if 
they  possessed  a  sort  of  magical  efficacy."  2 

The  editor  (Japanese)  of  a  well-known  orthodox  church  paper 
writes  as  follows:  "During  the  past  few  years  certain  Protestant 
churches  have  made  great  strides  towards  reaching  a  state  of 
entire  independence  of  foreign  help,  but  there  is  one  particular 
in  which  they  have  done  next  to  nothing  towards  independence. 
They  have  made  no  serious  attempt  to  found  Divinity  Schools 
of  their  own,  where  the  doctrinal  teachings  of  foreign  missionaries 
shall  no  longer  predominate.     Our  theological  training  schools 

1  Watson,  The  Future  of  Japan,  p.  328. 

^  Kaitakusha  (Pioneer),  December,  1908.  The  Future  of  Christianity  in 
Japan. 


The  Japanese  Christian  Church  91 

are  run  with  foreign  money  and  managed  by  foreign  teachers. 
The  Kumiai  Kyokai  (Congregational  Church)  which  glories  so 
much  in  its  independence,  has  as  yet  taken  no  satisfactory  steps 
for  establishing  a  Divinity  Hall,  conducted  on  doctrinally  and 
financially  independent  lines.  It  is  only  after  this  has  been  ac- 
accompHshed  by  various  churches  that  an  adequate  supply  of 
properly-trained  pastors  will  be  obtained."  It  might  be  added 
that  the  editor  of  this  paper  has  recently  opened  an  independent 
Theological  Seminary  in  Tokyo  with  remarkable  success,  i 

Dr.  Tetsujiro  Inoue,  a  non-Christian  scholar  about  as  far- 
famed  as  Dr.  Kato,  and  formerly  as  bitterly  opposed  to  Christi- 
anity, in  an  address  made  before  the  directors  of  the  Provincial 
Middle  Schools,  remarked  that  formerly  Christianity  in  this 
country  was  not  in  agreement  with  the  State,  but  that  such  is 
no  longer  the  case.  This  admission  caused  great  surprise  at  the 
time  it  was  made  and  has  since  been  the  subject  of  much  comment. 
The  Kirisutokyo  Sekai  (Christian  World)  asks  what  difference 
there  is  between  the  new  and  the  old  form  of  Christianity,  and 
comes  to  the  conclusion  that  the  Christianity  to  which  in  former 
years  Dr.  Inoue  so  strongly  objected  was  the  Occidental  Christi- 
anity, which  had  been  propagated  here  unchanged,  whereas  the 
Christianity  of  which  the  learned  doctor  approved  to-day  is 
Japonicized  Christianity.  It  seems  to  be  generally  held,  says 
the  Kirisutokyo  Sekai,  that  Christianity  in  schools  can  do  no 
harm  whatever  to  the  Japanese  State.2 

Dr.  Nitobe,  professor  of  Political'  Economy  in  the  Kyoto 
Imperial  University,  states  his  conviction  regarding  Christianity 
thus:  "Up  till  recently  Japan  has  been  what  the  Germans  call  a 
'Rechtstaat,'  a  legally  organized  state,  a  skeleton  with  little  or 
no  moral  flesh  on  it.  And  it  is  to  Christianity  that  we  must  look 
to  give  us  the  moral  fiesh.  It  is  as  a  state  and  not  as  a  society 
that  we  have  made  changes  and  progress,  and  now  the  time  has 
come  to   make   changes  in   society.     This  is  dependent  on  the 


1  Fukuin  Shimpo,  in  Japan  Weekly  Mail,  Dec.  12,  1908. 

2  Japan  Weekly  Mail,  Oct.  15,  1907. 


92  Christianity  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan 

personal  character  of  those  in  places  of  leadership  and  authority, 
and  personal  character  is  best  improved  or  changed  by  Christi- 
anity." 1 

One  of  the  best-known  Japanese  Christian  papers  advocates 
the  following  views: 

"We  are  Christians,  and  we  believe  that  Christianity,  in  a 
thoroughly  Japonicised  form,  will  be  the  religion  of  the  Japanese 
people  of  the  future.  *  *  *  Christianity  has  its  great  energy, 
its  connection  with  Western  civilization,  and  its  readiness  to  adapt 
itself  to  the  progress  of  the  modern  world,  to  depend  on.  These 
qualities  in  Christianity  will  certainly,  in  our  opinion,  secure 
its  final  success.  But  instead  of  exterminating  existing  creeds, 
it  will  certainly  embody  all  that  is  best  in  them  in  its  own  form 
of  belief.  With  the  large  importations  that  this  will  imply, 
Japanese  Christianity  in  the  future  will  differ  materially  from 
any  form  of  Christianity  known  to  history.  It  will  have  bor- 
rowed from  Confucianism  much  of  its  fine  moral  teaching.  It 
will  be  indebted  to  Buddhism  for  ideas  which  it  has  done  far 
more  to  elucidate,  emphasize  and  apply  than  Christianity  has 
attempted,  and  from  Shintoism  it  will  take  such  elements  as  are 
part  and  parcel  of  Japanese  nationality."  2 

It  is  not  necessary  to  multiply  quotations,  though  this  could 
easily  be  done.  It  is  true  that  testimony  of  exactly  the  opposite 
nature  could  be  produced,  but  this  would  certainly  not  represent 
the  most  general  feeling  among  Japanese  Christians  and  others. 
It  seems  to  me  clear  that  the  Japanese  as  a  people  are  no  longer 
unfavorable  to  essential  Christianity,  and  are  very  well  prepared 
by  nature  for  accepting  the  Gospel;  but  they  do  not  like  to 
accept  any  un-Japanese  accretions  that  may  have  gathered 
around  it  while  travelling  westward  around  the  earth.  They 
have  already  begun  to  make  their  own  additions,  their  own 
adjustments  and  their  own  interpretations.  They  are  beginning 
to  lay  the  new  foundation  for  their  religious  institutions,  and  it 

1  Japan  Evangelist,  1906,  p.  89. 

^  Kirisutokyo  Sekai  (Christian  World),  May  16,  1907. 


The  Japanese  Christian  Church  93 

is  very  probable  that  the  Christian  world  will  have  the  blessed 
opportunity,  in  the  not  too  distant  future,  of  witnessing  the 
erection  of  a  noble  building  of  which  God  is  the  builder,  and  the 
Japanese  His  faithful  workmen. 

Conclusion 

To  what  extent,  then,  has  Christianity  been  a  social  factor 
in  modern  Japan?  We  have  seen  that  it  has  affected  the  govern- 
ment itself,  though  only  in  an  external  way;  that  some  of  the 
laws  had  to  be  made  in  conformity  to  Christian  customs  of  the 
West;  that  a  disproportionately  large  number  of  the  members 
of  the  Diet  are  Christians.  In  education,  also,  traces  of  Christian 
influence  are  easily  visible,  especially  so  far  as  female  education 
is  concerned. 

In  the  sphere  of  literature  there  is  also  evidence  that  Christianity 
is  at  work  in  Japan,  though  in  this  sphere  the  influence  is  quite 
recent,  and  not  yet  very  thorough-going.  In  morals,  through  the 
placing  of  greater  emphasis  on  the  worth  of  the  individual,  the 
results  of  the  Christian  religion  are  very  evident.  The  moral 
chaos  in  which  Japanese  society  finds  itself  at  present  is  some- 
what ameliorated  by  it.  The  old  religions  of  Japan  have  partly 
been  favorably  affected  by  Christianity  and  partly  unfavorably. 

In  the  world  of  philanthropy  and  social  reform,  Christianity 
has  wholly  transformed  Japanese  ideas.  It  has  given  a  new  and 
much  wider  meaning  to  charity,  and  the  very  forms  of  Christian 
benevolence  have  largely  been  adopted. 

In  the  matter  of  institutional  Christianity,  no  remarkable 
progress  has  been  made,  because  this  is  something  that  cannot 
be  imported  and  inserted  into  Japanese  society  at  will;  but  as 
Christianity  is  itself  Oriental,  its  essence  finds  favorable  subsoil 
here.  We  have  seen  that  the  simplest,  most  primitive  and  least 
doctrinal  form  of  Christianity  suits  the  Japanese  best;  that  they 
hear  and  read  the  message  of  Jesus  and  then  think  it  out  for 
themselves  and  apply  it  according  to  their  racial  needs,  inherit- 
ance and  development ;  that  this  process  can  best  go  on  when  all 
the   foreign   workers   are   real   ministers    (servants).     The   mis- 


94  Christianity  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan 

sionary  is  a  power  in  his  calling  only  when  to  some  degree,  at  least, 
he  is  an  incarnation  of  the  spirit  and  love  of  Christianity  and  can 
interpret  this  spirit  to  the  Japanese  people;  when,  in  his  public 
and  private  character,  he  manifests  a  moral  nature  that  is  fitted 
to  cope  magnanimously  with  the  difficult  problems  of  life ;  when 
by  experiment  he  exhibits  to  the  people  of  Japan  the  best  in  West- 
ern civilization,  and  shows  that  this  has  its  fountain-head  in  his 
religion.  Under  this  influence  it  may  be  expected  that  the  ideas 
and  aspirations  of  Orient  and  Occident  will  be  harmonized  and 
fused.  When  that  shall  have  taken  place,  may  we  not  with  reason 
look  to  Japan  for  producing  a  truer  type  of  Christianity  than  the 
world  has  ever  seen? 


LIST  OF  REFERENCES 

The  works  here  enumerated  are  the  principal  ones  of  those  referred  to 
throughout  this  thesis: 

Academy,  Vol.  66. 

Adams,  George  Burton,  Civilization  During  the  Middle  Ages. 

Asakawa,  K.,  Atlantic  Monthly,  Vol.  99. 

Aston,  G.  W.,  Japanese  Literature. 

Aston,  G.  W.,  The  Way  of  the  Gods. 

Bacon,  Alice  M.,  Japanese  Girls  and  Women. 

Barton,  James  L.,  The  Missionary  and  His  Critics. 

Bihliotheca  Sacra,  1905. 

Brown,  Arthur  J.,  The  How  and  Why  of  Foreign  Missions. 

Gary,  Otis,  Japan  and  Its  Regeneration. 

Chamberlain,  Basil  H.,  Things  Japanese. 

Clement,  Ernest  W.,  A  Hand-Book  of  Modern  Japan. 

Clement,  Ernest  W.,  Christianity  in  Modern  Japan. 

De  Forest,  J.  H.,  Sunrise  in  the  Sunrise  Kingdom. 

Fukuin  Shimpo  (Gospel  News).  1908. 

Giddings,  F.  H.,  Principles  of  Sociology. 

Griffis,  W.  E.,  Dux  Christus. 

Grifiis,  W.  E.,  Townsend  Harris. 

Gulick,  S.  L.,  Evolution  of  the  Japanese. 

Harper's  Weekly,  1905. 

Heam,  Lafcadio,  Japan,  An  Interpretation. 

Heam,  Lafcadio,  Kokoro. 

Hozumi  Nobushige,  Ancestor  Worship  and  Japanese  Law. 

Inoue  Tetsujiro,  Ethics  and  Education. 

Japan  Evangelist,  1905,  1906,  1907,  1908.  This  is  an  English  monthly 
magazine,  published  by  the  Protestant  missionaries  in  Japan.  It  is  a  re- 
liable source  of  much  information. 

Japan  Weekly  Mail,  1907,  1908.  This  is  an  English  secular  weekly  of  first 
importance,  published  in  Yokohama.  The  editor.  Captain  Brinkley,  has  lived 
in  Japan  for  more  than  forty  years,  and  is  a  scholar  of  international  repute. 
Once  a  month,  a  summary  of  the  contents  of  the  current  religious  magazines 
of  Japan  is  given.  These  summaries  are  written  by  Mr.  Walter  Dening,  who 
is  a  noted  authority  on  many  Japanese  questions. 

Japan  Gazette,  1907. 

Kaitakusha  (Pioneer),  Y.  M.  C.  A.  periodical. 


96  Christianity  as  a  Social  Factor  in  Modern  Japan 

Kashiwai,  E.,  and  Komatsu,  T.,  in  Japan  Evangelist,  1907. 

Katsura,  Count,  in  Christianity  in  Modern  Japan. 

Kawakami,  K.,  The  Political  Ideas  of  Modern  Japan. 

Kirisutokyo  Sekai  (Christian  World). 

Lampe,  Wm.  E.,  The  Japanese  Social  Organization. 

Mitford,  C.  B.,  Geography  of  Japan. 

Murphy,  U.  G.,  Social  Evil  in  Japan,  1908. 

Murray,  David,  The  Story  of  Japan. 

Nitobe,  Inazo,  Bushido,  the  Soul  of  Japan. 

Ono,  Y.,  Industrial  Transition  of  Japan. 

Outlook,  1909. 

The  Century  Magazine,  Vol.  47. 

The  Christian  Movement  in  Japan,  1903,  1904,  1905,  1906,  1907,  1908. 
This  is  an  annual  publication  gotten  outi  by  the  missionaries.  Besides  con- 
taining matters  ecclesiastical,  it  gives  a  good  summary  of  Japanese  progress 
in  general. 

Tokyo  Missionary  Conference,  1900. 

Transactions  of  the  Asiatic  Society  in  Japan.  This  is  the  most  scientific 
English  work  in  existence  on  things  Japanese. 

Watson,  W.  Petrie,  The  Future  of  Japan. 


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